Learning Science for Instructional Designers

1. Learning science foundations: From neural networks to cognitive architecture

Our brains are massive networks of interconnected neurons. When we think, we activate parts of this network as patterns. And, when we learn, we essentially strengthen the connections between neurons.

Neural foundations. At its core, learning is about strengthening connections between neurons in our brains. However, for practical learning design, we focus on the cognitive level rather than individual neurons. This involves working with concepts, contexts, and language to activate patterns of neural activity.

Cognitive architecture. Our cognitive system consists of three main components: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Information flows between these stores through processes like attention, rehearsal, and retrieval. Understanding this architecture helps us design learning experiences that work with, rather than against, our brain's natural information processing capabilities.

• Sensory memory: Brief storage of incoming stimuli
• Working memory: Limited capacity for conscious processing
• Long-term memory: Vast storage of knowledge and skills
• Key processes: Attention, rehearsal, elaboration, retrieval

2. Cognitive load and memory: Optimizing information processing for learning

Don't overload working memory. Keep the amount of information being processed at a low level. This includes contextual and conceptual knowledge. We can overload the system easily.

Managing cognitive load. Working memory has limited capacity, typically 3±1 chunks of information. To avoid overwhelming learners, we must carefully manage the cognitive load of our learning materials and activities. This involves chunking information, removing extraneous details, and gradually building complexity.

Effective encoding and retrieval. To ensure long-term retention and transfer of learning, we need to support both encoding (storing information) and retrieval (accessing stored information). This can be achieved through elaboration techniques, spaced practice, and contextual variety in learning activities.

• Chunking: Group related information into meaningful units
• Minimize extraneous load: Remove unnecessary details
• Elaboration: Connect new information to existing knowledge
• Spaced practice: Distribute learning over time
• Varied contexts: Practice in different situations to support transfer

3. Situated cognition: The importance of context in knowledge transfer

The situated nature of our cognition means we can be prone to insufficiently transferring knowledge from one context to another. So, in addition to sufficient practice to support retention, we also need to consider the contexts of practice.

Context matters. Our thinking and learning are deeply influenced by the context in which they occur. This means that knowledge acquired in one situation may not automatically transfer to another, even if the underlying principles are the same. To address this, learning experiences must deliberately incorporate a variety of relevant contexts.

Designing for transfer. To ensure that learners can apply their knowledge in real-world situations, we need to carefully design practice activities and examples that span the range of contexts where the knowledge will be used. This approach helps learners develop more flexible and adaptable mental models.

• Use concrete, real-world examples
• Provide practice in multiple contexts
• Gradually increase context complexity
• Explicitly discuss similarities and differences between contexts
• Encourage learners to generate their own examples and applications

4. Engagement and motivation: Designing emotionally compelling learning experiences

Explicitly consider the emotions of the learner through the experience. Consider addressing motivation, anxiety, and confidence at the various stages of the learning process.

Emotional impact on learning. Emotions play a crucial role in learning, affecting attention, memory, and motivation. Positive emotions generally support learning, while excessive anxiety can hinder it. Designing learning experiences that engage learners emotionally can significantly enhance outcomes.

Motivation and challenge. Intrinsic motivation, where learners are genuinely interested in the topic, is ideal but not always achievable. Extrinsic motivation can be used to supplement, but the goal should be to help learners see the relevance and value of the material. Balancing challenge level is crucial – too easy is boring, too hard is frustrating, but the right level of challenge creates engagement and flow.

• Address the "What's in it for me?" (WIIFM) for learners
• Use storytelling and relevant examples to create emotional connections
• Manage anxiety by creating a safe learning environment
• Provide appropriate levels of challenge and support
• Build confidence through gradual skill development and positive feedback
• Use humor judiciously to enhance engagement

5. Social learning: Harnessing the power of collaboration and observation

Use social learning activities when appropriate. That includes showing modeled examples (including the instructor modeling the behavior), and using group work when conditions are right.

Learning from others. Humans are social creatures, and much of our learning occurs through observing and interacting with others. Social learning can enhance understanding, expose learners to different perspectives, and provide opportunities for collaborative problem-solving.

Implementing social learning. While powerful, social learning activities require careful design and facilitation to be effective. They are particularly useful for tasks with high ambiguity or those requiring far transfer. Modeling, group discussions, peer feedback, and collaborative projects can all be valuable social learning approaches.

• Use expert modeling to demonstrate skills and thought processes
• Facilitate group discussions to explore different perspectives
• Design collaborative projects that require negotiation of shared understanding
• Implement peer feedback and review activities
• Create opportunities for learners to teach or explain concepts to others
• Foster communities of practice for ongoing social learning

6. Meta-learning: Developing skills to learn how to learn effectively

Don't leave meta-learning to chance. Build in specific references to skills. Consider actually assessing and developing them as part of your overall curriculum.

Learning about learning. Meta-learning, or learning how to learn, is a crucial skill set that can dramatically improve learners' ability to acquire and apply new knowledge. This includes understanding effective study strategies, self-regulation skills, and reflective practices.

Developing meta-learning skills. Instead of assuming learners already possess these skills, we should explicitly teach and develop them alongside domain-specific content. This can involve introducing learners to research-based learning strategies, encouraging self-reflection, and providing opportunities to practice and refine these skills.

• Teach effective note-taking and summarization techniques
• Introduce spaced repetition and retrieval practice strategies
• Develop self-regulation skills: goal-setting, planning, monitoring, and evaluating
• Encourage reflective practices, such as learning journals or post-activity debriefs
• Discuss growth mindset and the malleability of intelligence
• Provide opportunities for learners to choose and evaluate their learning approaches

7. Learning experience design: Integrating science and engagement for optimal outcomes

If you get the design right, there are lots of ways to implement it; if you don't get the design right, it doesn't matter how you implement it.

Science-based design. Effective learning experience design integrates what we know about cognitive science, memory, and engagement to create outcomes that are both effective and engaging. This involves carefully crafting each element of the learning experience, from introductions to practice activities and assessments.

Key design elements. A well-designed learning experience should include clear goals, appropriate challenge levels, relevant contexts, active exploration, meaningful feedback, and attention-grabbing elements. By aligning these elements with learning science principles, we can create "hard fun" – experiences that are challenging yet engaging and effective.

• Start with clear, meaningful learning objectives
• Design practice activities that mirror real-world application
• Create or select conceptual models that guide understanding and decision-making
• Develop examples that showcase concept application in varied contexts
• Craft emotionally engaging introductions and closings
• Integrate reflection and meta-learning opportunities throughout
• Focus on doing, not just knowing, in both individual activities and overall curriculum design

Last updated: August 12, 2024