A History of Islam in 21 Women

1. Foundational Women Shaped Early Islam

Today more than ever, it is important to highlight that the first person to receive the Prophet’s message was a woman.

Early believers. Khadija, Prophet Muhammad's first wife, was the very first person to believe in his message, offering unwavering faith and support during the hardest times. She was a successful businesswoman and used her standing to protect him when he was most vulnerable, demonstrating women's active presence and influence from the outset of Islam. Her wisdom and compassion bolstered his resolve, and he relied on her counsel.

Prophet's family. Fatima, the Prophet's only surviving child with Khadija, is revered by all Muslims and is the ancestor of the Shia Imams, making lineage through her a great honor. The Prophet expressed deep love and respect for her, emphasizing her importance despite tribal customs that devalued daughters. Her life, though short, is interwoven with early Islamic history, including her marriage to Ali and her role in the succession disputes after her father's death.

Influential wife. Aisha, daughter of the first caliph Abu Bakr and a wife of the Prophet, became a prime authority on his teachings and conduct, especially concerning women. Known for her sharp intellect and prodigious memory, she transmitted numerous hadith (reports of the Prophet's sayings and actions), shaping the ethical worldview of Muslims. She also played a significant, albeit controversial, role in early political events, demonstrating women's potential for public influence.

2. Women as Pillars of Spiritual and Intellectual Life

By holding Rabia in highest esteem, Sufism shattered misogynist clichés and opened a space for women’s active spiritual presence in the history of Islam.

Mystical devotion. Rabia al-Adawiyya of Basra, an eighth-century Sufi, is celebrated for articulating a passionate love for God that transcended fear of hell or desire for paradise. Her asceticism and mystical insights integrated existing traditions into Sufism, emphasizing inwardness, humility, and exclusive devotion to God as the ultimate beloved. Her example demonstrated that women could reach the highest spiritual ranks, challenging prevailing misogynistic views.

Hadith transmission. Fatima of Nishapur, living centuries after Rabia, dedicated her long life to preserving and transmitting hadith, the sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad. She was a respected teacher in a time when standardizing hadith collections was crucial for defining Sunni Islam. Her work, and that of other women transmitters, played a fundamental role in religious education, particularly for girls, highlighting women's contribution to Islamic scholarship and the preservation of religious knowledge.

Educating generations. Women like Fatima of Nishapur and later figures like Nana Asmau and Mukhlisa Bubi exemplified the vital role of female educators in Islamic history. They taught literacy, religious knowledge, and moral values, often within female-centered spaces like homes or girls' schools. This tradition ensured the transmission of Islamic learning across generations and empowered women with knowledge, enabling them to participate more fully in their communities' religious and intellectual life.

3. Queens and Regents Wielded Significant Political Power

Neither the first nor the only Muslim woman to rule in Islamic history, still she remains unique in many ways.

Long-reigning queen. Arwa of Yemen, known as Sayyida al-Hurra, ruled for six decades in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, an exceptionally long reign for any sovereign, male or female. She held both political and religious authority as a Sulayhi queen allied with the Fatimid caliphate. Her rule in Yemen, extending influence to India, demonstrated that women could effectively govern, manage state affairs, and maintain stability through diplomacy and strategic alliances.

Navigating Mongol chaos. Terken Khatun, a thirteenth-century ruler in Kerman (Iran), governed during the tumultuous period of Mongol invasions. Despite being captured into slavery as a child, she rose to power through strategic marriages and political acumen, securing Mongol recognition for her rule. She brought prosperity to her realm during a time of widespread destruction, investing in agriculture, trade, and charitable endowments like madrasas and hospitals, leaving a lasting legacy of good governance.

Crisis leadership. Shajara'-al-Durr, a former slave-girl, briefly ruled Egypt in the thirteenth century after the death of her Aiyubid husband during a Crusader invasion. She concealed his death, rallied the army, and defeated the Crusaders, demonstrating remarkable leadership in a crisis. Although her reign was short and ended tragically amidst political rivalries with the Mamluks and opposition from the Abbasid caliph, her actions were pivotal in the transition of power in Egypt.

4. Female Rulers Defended Realms and Fostered Prosperity

While most coastal rulers in Java and Sumatra, in south-east Asia, capitulated to colonial manipulation, Tajul-Alam kept Aceh independent.

Resisting colonialism. Sultana Tajul-Alam Safiatuddin Syah ruled the Sultanate of Aceh Darussalam (Sumatra) for thirty-four years in the seventeenth century. She successfully maintained Aceh's independence against the encroaching Dutch and English East India Companies, unlike many neighboring rulers. Her skillful diplomacy and economic management, particularly in the "Jewels Affair" negotiations with the Dutch, protected the Sultanate's wealth and sovereignty.

Defending the homeland. Sayyida al-Hurra of Tétouan, a sixteenth-century ruler in Morocco, fought against Spanish and Portuguese encroachments on Muslim territories in Iberia and North Africa. Having lost her home to the Reconquista, she used Tétouan as a base to resist further foreign advances, partnering with privateers to attack European ships. Her defiance earned her the moniker "Pirate Queen" from her adversaries, highlighting her active role in defending Muslim lands.

Economic stewardship. Both Tajul-Alam and Terken Khatun prioritized the economic well-being of their subjects. Terken Khatun invested heavily in infrastructure and endowments, boosting agriculture and trade in Kerman. Tajul-Alam navigated complex trade relationships with European powers, ensuring Aceh's prosperity through control over commodities like pepper and diamonds. Their reigns demonstrate that female rulers could be effective economic managers and protectors of their realms' wealth.

5. Royal Women Navigated Court Politics and Succession

However, the Valide Sultan held one of the most powerful positions in the entire Ottoman Empire.

Power behind the throne. Safiye Sultan, mother of Ottoman Sultan Murat III, wielded immense influence in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, a period sometimes called the "Sultanate of Women." As Valide Sultan, she was a key figure in court politics, advising her son and later grandsons, managing vast wealth, and engaging in international diplomacy, including correspondence with Queen Elizabeth I of England. Her power highlights the significant, albeit often indirect, roles royal women played in imperial governance.

Safavid influence. Pari Khanum, a sixteenth-century Safavid princess, was a formidable political agent in Iran, particularly during succession crises after her father Shah Tahmasp's death. Known for her intelligence and education, she influenced court decisions, managed state affairs during interregnums, and played a crucial role in bringing her half-brother Ismail II to the throne. Despite her tragic end, her life demonstrates the decisive impact royal women could have in the volatile world of dynastic politics.

Strategic alliances. Royal women across different dynasties, including the Safavids and Ottomans, were often central to forging political alliances through marriage. While sometimes seen as mere tokens, women like Pari Khanum I (Pari Khanum's aunt) and Safiye Sultan used their positions within these networks to enhance their own influence and safeguard their dynasties. Their ability to navigate complex family and political relationships was essential to their power.

6. Educators and Jurists Championed Women's Rights

Eventually, she met a tragic end during the anti-religious campaigns of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Mother of all. Nana Asmau, a nineteenth-century scholar and daughter of the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in West Africa, dedicated her life to educating women. Known as "Mother of All," she established a network of female teachers (Yan Taru) who traveled to villages, teaching women literacy, Islamic knowledge, hygiene, and healing practices. Her work empowered women through education, challenging traditional limitations and integrating them more fully into the community's religious and social life.

Pioneering jurist. Mukhlisa Bubi, a Tatar Muslim woman in early twentieth-century Russia, was a leading educator and became the first Muslim woman judge in modern history. She championed modern education for girls and, after the 1917 revolution, was elected as a sharia judge. In this role, she worked to enhance women's marital rights, drafting model marriage contracts and instructing imams to protect women from practices like forced polygyny, demonstrating women's capacity for legal and religious authority.

Balancing tradition and reform. Both Nana Asmau and Mukhlisa Bubi operated within Islamic frameworks while pushing for social change. Asmau used Islamic teachings to advocate for women's education and condemn their mistreatment. Bubi worked within the sharia court system to reform family law and protect women's rights. Their efforts show that advocating for women's advancement was not necessarily seen as contradictory to Islamic principles, but rather as a fulfillment of its ethical ideals.

7. Navigating Modernity, Nationalism, and Identity

Noor’s life-story resonates with the concerns and sensitivities of our times, when millions of Muslims and others continue to negotiate their place in “the West,” newcomers as well as those with deep roots.

Author of the new nation. Halidé Edip Adivar, a Turkish writer, activist, and soldier, was a key figure in the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic in the early twentieth century. Educated at an American college, she blended Ottoman, European, and Islamic influences, advocating for Turkish nationalism and women's education. She participated in the Turkish Independence War and later wrote extensively on the intersection of nationalism, gender, and modernity, shaping the cultural landscape of the new republic.

Spy and symbol. Noor Inayat Khan, a Muslim-born woman of mixed heritage, served as an Allied spy in Nazi-occupied France during World War II. Raised in a Sufi family, she embodied a complex identity, navigating different cultures and religions. Her courageous actions as a radio operator for the French Resistance, despite the immense danger, led to her capture and execution. Her story highlights the sacrifices made by individuals with diverse backgrounds in global conflicts and resonates with contemporary discussions of identity and belonging.

Blending influences. Both Halidé Edip and Noor Inayat Khan drew on multiple cultural and intellectual traditions. Halidé integrated Islamic principles with Western feminist ideas and Turkish nationalism. Noor's Sufi upbringing, combined with her European education and wartime service, shaped her unique path. Their lives demonstrate how individuals can synthesize diverse influences to forge new identities and contribute significantly to historical change in periods of rapid transformation.

8. Cultural Icons United and Inspired Nations

Her voice forged solidarity.

Voice of Egypt. Umm Kulthum, the iconic Egyptian singer, became a symbol of Arab unity and resilience, particularly after the 1967 Six-Day War. Her powerful voice and masterful performance of classical and patriotic songs captivated audiences across the Arab world and beyond for decades. She used her fame to support national causes, organizing fundraising concerts for Egypt's military and victims of the war, becoming an ambassador-at-large for Arab nationalism and solidarity.

Cultural diplomacy. Umm Kulthum's concerts transcended national borders, uniting diverse Arab populations through shared cultural experience. Singing lyrics by poets from various Arab countries, she reinforced the idea of a common Arab heritage and identity. Her tours were treated like state visits, and her ability to evoke deep emotion in listeners, regardless of their background, made her a unique force for cultural and political cohesion in the Arab world during a turbulent era.

Beyond entertainment. While a celebrated artist, Umm Kulthum's role extended far beyond entertainment. She was actively involved in national efforts, using her platform to raise morale and funds. Her dedication to her country and the broader Arab cause, combined with her immense artistic talent, solidified her status as a cultural icon whose legacy continues to inspire. Her life demonstrates the powerful impact artists can have on national and regional identity and sentiment.

9. Breaking Barriers in Science and Architecture

You cannot believe the enormous resistance I’ve faced just for being an Arab, and a woman on top of that.

Architectural visionary. Zaha Hadid, an Iraqi-born British architect, redefined architecture with her innovative, fluid designs, becoming the first woman to win the prestigious Pritzker Prize. She faced significant resistance due to her identity as an Arab woman in a male-dominated field but overcame these challenges through sheer talent and tenacity. Her iconic buildings around the world stand as testaments to her visionary spirit and her ability to break through cultural and gender barriers.

Mathematical genius. Maryam Mirzakhani, an Iranian-American mathematician, was the first woman to receive the Fields Medal, the highest award in mathematics. Growing up in post-revolutionary Iran, she benefited from educational reforms that provided opportunities for gifted girls. Her groundbreaking work in theoretical mathematics, characterized by deep contemplation and perseverance, earned her global recognition and inspired a new generation of mathematicians, particularly women, demonstrating excellence knows no gender or national bounds.

Global impact. Both Zaha Hadid and Maryam Mirzakhani achieved global recognition in highly competitive fields traditionally dominated by men. Their success challenged stereotypes about Muslim women and highlighted the potential for individuals from diverse backgrounds to excel in science and the arts. Their lives serve as powerful examples of dedication, intellectual rigor, and the ability to make profound contributions that transcend geographical and cultural boundaries.

Last updated: May 23, 2025