A History of Magic, Witchcraft, and the Occult

1. Magic's Ancient Roots: From Ritual to Religion

Magic, by holding people’s emotions in a triple bond … holds sway over a great part of humanity.

Prehistoric Beginnings. Magic is as old as humankind, with evidence suggesting Neanderthals practiced ritualistic burials 95,000 years ago. Early humans, facing the mysteries of life and death, sought to control their environment through shamanism and art, believing they could influence the spirit world. Cave paintings, such as those at Lascaux, may have been part of hunting rituals, while figurines of women with exaggerated features suggest a focus on fertility magic.

The Rise of Organized Religion. As societies advanced, spiritual life became more structured, mirroring the hierarchies of human society. In ancient Sumer and Egypt, gods paralleled rulers, priests, and nobility. Writing allowed for the codification of religious practices and spells, providing more detailed insights into both benevolent and malevolent magic.

The Power of Words. Words, both spoken and written, were seen as magical, with curse tablets in ancient Greece and Rome demonstrating the belief that expressing a dark desire with the right formulas could bring about its fulfillment. The desire to stave off chaos and death meant that magic was ever-present in the ancient world.

2. Mesopotamia and Egypt: Where Magic Permeated Daily Life

I have called on twilight, midnight, and dawn, because a sorceress has bewitched me.

Mesopotamian Magic. In ancient Mesopotamia, magic was an integral part of daily life, with people seeking protection from demons and attempting to divine the future through exorcists and omen interpreters. The Mesopotamians believed in a pantheon of gods and a layer of demons, such as Lamashtu and Namtaru, who needed to be appeased. Disasters were attributed to curses, offenses against the gods, or ignored divine signs.

Egyptian Heka. In ancient Egypt, Heka (magic) was central to beliefs, with creator deities using it to bring the world into existence. Egyptians believed that both gods and humans possessed heka, which could be channeled through spells and rituals to protect against malevolent spirits. Magic was used in all aspects of life, from matters of state to personal affairs.

Protective Measures. Both cultures employed various protective measures, including amulets, figurines, and spells. Mesopotamians guarded palaces with lamassu statues and used substitution rituals to ward off evil. Egyptians wore amulets, inscribed spells on bowls, and placed cippi in rooms to prevent stings and bites.

3. Grappling with the Divine: Magic in Ancient Greece and Rome

It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless there is a Magus present.

Greek Magic. In ancient Greece, magic (mageia) was intertwined with formal religion, with divine influence permeating the world. While formal religion involved public sacrifices and prayers, magic was a more hidden and transgressive form of appeal to the gods, often used for personal gain or to harm others. Philosophers claimed to reject magic, but physicians prescribed sleeping in sacred precincts for healing.

Roman Magic. The Romans inherited from the Greeks a sense that magic was a means to gain agency over the gods. However, under Roman rule, the division between official religion and magic hardened, leading to persecution of magic practitioners. Emperors consulted the Sibylline Books in times of crisis, and astrology straddled the divide between popular and aristocratic magic.

Curses and Necromancy. Both cultures produced curse tablets, seeking to bind the will of others or exact revenge. Necromancy, the art of speaking with the dead, was also practiced, with some Romans rumored to use it for nefarious purposes. The Romans' fear of harmful magic ran deep, leading to laws prohibiting malign magic and periodic mass arrests.

4. Christianity's Rise and the Marginalization of Magic

An evil Norn In olden days Doomed me In waters to dwell.

Religious Shift. The medieval period saw the rise of Christianity and Islam, which challenged ancient magical traditions. As Christianity spread, magic practitioners found themselves increasingly marginalized, with supernatural powers appropriated by the Church for saints. Powerful practitioners of magic were demonized, portrayed as owing their abilities to the Devil.

Folk Magic Persists. Despite condemnation, folk magic persisted, with village healers continuing to practice much as they had before. Sermons urged people to prayer and condemned the use of invocations and talismans, but many continued to believe in the magical powers of herbs and stones.

Norse Magic. In Scandinavia, Norse magic, particularly seidhr practiced by women, involved visionary journeys and contact with the spirit world. The Norse also searched for omens in nature and made sacrifices to appease the gods. Runes, angular carved marks, were used as a secret language of power and magic.

5. Islamic Scholarship Preserves and Expands Magical Knowledge

It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless there is a Magus present.

Islamic Scholarship. In the Islamic world, magic had a more ambiguous place, with folk magic thriving alongside scholarly interest. Following the Quran's instruction to seek knowledge, scholars translated ritual magical texts, and the study of math and natural sciences went hand in hand with advances in alchemy, astrology, and other occult arts.

Protection Against Demons. Muslims believed in fallen angels who had become demons and devilish spirits called jinns, and the use of talismans to protect against them was a part of everyday life. The Quran frowned upon talismans, but early Muslims called upon their powers to ward off evil.

Magic Writing. For many early followers of Islam, letters and numbers had magical powers, and some magicians became highly skilled in the science of letters. This involved studying the occult properties of Arabic letters and their associated names.

6. Renaissance Magic: A Blend of Philosophy, Science, and Superstition

Fashion two images with the first face of Cancer rising, and Venus therein, and the Moon in the first face of Taurus …

Hermeticism and the Universe. Renaissance magic was often divided into high and low forms, with high magic including scholarly experiments with alchemy and low magic encompassing popular folk traditions. Philosophical magic, particularly Hermeticism, emphasized a spirit that unified the universe and everything in it.

Astrology and Alchemy. Astrology and alchemy were key components of Renaissance magic, with scholars seeking to understand the influence of celestial bodies and transform base metals into gold. The Picatrix, a book on astral magic, explained the natural links between the planets and intangibles such as colors and fragrances.

Kabbalah and Angelic Alphabets. The Kabbalah tradition, a Jewish mystical way of thinking, aimed to understand and connect with the divine. Angelic alphabets, derived from ancient Greek signs, were believed to have intrinsic mystical power and were used in magical rituals.

7. Witchcraft Accusations: Gender, Power, and Persecution

Those who dare to poison people with ku … will be publicly executed.

Demonization of Magic. As Christianity's influence grew, ancient magical traditions were seen as a challenge to its authority. Magic practitioners were demonized, portrayed as owing their abilities to the Devil. The punishments for such practices became severe, with sorcerers and enchanters condemned to death.

The Witch Stereotype. The Renaissance saw the rise of the stereotyped evil female witch, with accusations often directed at poor and vulnerable women. The great European witch craze of the 16th and 17th centuries rested on the ideas that evil power came from the devil and that women were weaker and more susceptible to diabolic temptation.

Witch Trials and Torture. Witch trials became widespread, with confessions often extracted under torture. The Malleus Maleficarum, a book on witchcraft, provided courts with a treatise to take a harder line in prosecuting witchcraft.

8. Enlightenment Skepticism and the Rise of Stage Magic

Magic rose to such a height that even today it has sway over a great part of mankind.

Decline of Witch Trials. By the 1700s, as the Enlightenment gained pace, the persecution of witches was waning. Legislation now stressed the prosecution of occultists for duping people with claims to false powers rather than for being agents of Satan performing mysterious magic.

Cunning Folk and Folk Medicine. Despite skepticism, folk magic persisted, with cunning folk offering herbal cures and divination. However, they also faced increasing scrutiny and prosecution.

The Rise of Stage Magic. As belief in witchcraft declined, stage magic emerged as a popular form of entertainment. Magicians like Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin combined technical sophistication with showmanship to create spectacular illusions.

9. Spiritualism and Theosophy: Seeking Meaning in a Changing World

It must not be imagined that the secret of the letters can be uncovered with the aid of logical reasoning; it can be reached only through vision and with the aid of divine interpretation.

Spiritualism's Rise. The 19th century saw the rise of spiritualism, the belief that the living could communicate with the spirits of the dead through mediums. This movement offered solace to the bereaved and sparked a craze for séances.

Theosophy's Influence. Theosophy, founded by Helena Blavatsky, combined Western occultism with Eastern religions, seeking a universal truth and a higher understanding of humanity. Theosophy influenced many, including artists and intellectuals.

Astrology and Divination. Astrology and divination continued to be popular, with astrologers providing guidance and diviners interpreting dreams and omens. However, these practices also faced increasing skepticism from the scientific community.

10. Modern Wicca and Neopaganism: Reclaiming Ancient Traditions

Those who dare to poison people with ku … will be publicly executed.

Neopaganism's Emergence. The 20th century saw the emergence of Neopaganism, a movement that sought to revive pre-Christian pagan beliefs and practices. Wicca, founded by Gerald Gardner, became the best-known form of Neopaganism, emphasizing a connection with nature and the creed of "harm none."

Wiccan Beliefs and Practices. Wicca involves the worship of a dualistic deity, the Horned God and the Mother Goddess, and the celebration of seasonal cycles. Rituals often take place within a magic circle and involve the use of various tools, such as athames, wands, and crystals.

Diversity and Evolution. Wicca has evolved into various forms, including Gardnerian Wicca, Celtic Wicca, and feminist Wicca. Despite its diverse expressions, Wicca remains a testament to the enduring human need for magic and spirituality.

11. Magic in Modern Media: From Spectacle to Empowerment

She inhabited deserted tombs, and haunted graves from which the ghosts had been driven.

Magic as Entertainment. In the 20th and 21st centuries, magic has become a staple of mass entertainment, with stage magicians like Harry Houdini captivating audiences with their illusions and feats of endurance. Film and television have also played a significant role in shaping the image of magic, from the evil witches of fairy tales to the empowered witches of modern fantasy.

Witches in Film and Television. Depictions of witches in popular culture have changed since the early 20th century. From early incarnations of a warty old woman, the image has been modernized to represent female empowerment—sometimes for good or for mischievous entertainment and at other times frightening, unsettling, or plain evil.

Modern Interpretations. Modern media has also explored the darker side of magic, with films and television shows depicting the dangers of dabbling in the occult and the consequences of making pacts with dark forces. However, the overall trend has been toward a more nuanced and empowering portrayal of magic, reflecting a broader cultural shift in attitudes toward spirituality and the supernatural.

Last updated: April 24, 2025