A People’s History of Computing in the United States

1. Time-sharing networks enabled personal computing before personal computers

For the students and educators at the University of Illinois who had used the PLATO system during the 1960s, being able to see the screen was not particularly noteworthy.

Interactive computing revolution. Time-sharing systems in the 1960s and early 1970s allowed multiple users to simultaneously access a central computer via individual terminals. This technology enabled personal, interactive computing experiences long before the advent of personal computers. Users could write programs, play games, communicate with others, and engage in creative pursuits through these networks.

Widespread access. Academic institutions like Dartmouth College, the University of Illinois, and various schools in Minnesota implemented time-sharing networks that provided computing access to thousands of students and educators. These networks fostered communities of users who shared programs, ideas, and experiences, laying the groundwork for future digital cultures.

• Key time-sharing networks:
  • Dartmouth Time-Sharing System (DTSS)
  • PLATO system at University of Illinois
  • Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC)

2. BASIC became the lingua franca of early computing communities

BASIC was to be the language of the people, not the province of the professionals.

Democratizing programming. BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was designed to be easily learned and used by non-specialists. Its simplicity and accessibility made it the dominant programming language for early time-sharing networks and later personal computers.

Cultural impact. BASIC's widespread adoption facilitated the growth of personal computing and programming as a hobby. It enabled users to create and share programs for various purposes, from educational simulations to games. The language's popularity contributed to the development of a participatory computing culture.

• BASIC's key features:
  • Simple syntax resembling English
  • Easy to learn and use
  • Versatile for various applications
• Spread through:
  • Academic networks
  • Hobbyist publications like People's Computer Company
  • Early personal computers

3. Dartmouth College pioneered accessible computing for all students

Kemeny and Kurtz's creative approach to computing indoctrination displayed their zeal to demystify computing and make it practical for users.

Revolutionary vision. Professors John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College developed a time-sharing system and BASIC with the goal of making computing accessible to all students, regardless of their major. This approach contrasted with other institutions that limited computing access to science and engineering students.

Lasting impact. Dartmouth's model of accessible computing influenced other institutions and companies. The college's emphasis on user-friendly interfaces and programming languages set a precedent for future developments in personal computing.

• Dartmouth's innovations:
  • Time-sharing system for multiple simultaneous users
  • BASIC programming language
  • Integration of computing into liberal arts education
• Spread of the Dartmouth model:
  • Secondary schools in New England
  • Other colleges and universities
  • Commercial time-sharing services

4. Gender and power dynamics shaped early computing culture

Although Kemeny and Kurtz may have envisioned computing as an equalizer among their students, the students perceived it differently.

Masculine culture. Despite the potential for equality in digital spaces, early computing networks often reinforced existing gender norms and power dynamics. Male students and programmers frequently dominated these spaces, creating a masculine computing culture.

Hidden contributions. Women played significant roles in early computing, but their contributions were often overlooked or undervalued. The gendered division of labor in computing reflected broader societal norms of the time.

• Examples of gender dynamics:
  • Predominantly male student programmers at Dartmouth
  • Women's roles often limited to support positions
  • Harassment and discrimination in online spaces
• Exceptions and challenges:
  • Women like Maryann Bitzer contributing to PLATO development
  • Efforts to include women in computing education

5. Minnesota led the nation in statewide educational computing

MECC had achieved its goal of making interactive computing readily available for Minnesota's educators and students.

Innovative approach. Minnesota implemented a statewide educational computing network through organizations like TIES (Total Information for Educational Systems) and MECC (Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium). These efforts provided computing access to students across the state, from urban to rural areas.

Lasting legacy. Minnesota's educational computing initiatives produced popular software like The Oregon Trail and influenced educational technology nationwide. The state's approach to computing as a public good set an example for other regions.

• Key Minnesota initiatives:
  • TIES (Total Information for Educational Systems)
  • MECC (Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium)
  • Statewide time-sharing network
• Impacts:
  • Equalized computing access across the state
  • Development of educational software
  • Model for other states and countries

6. PLATO system revolutionized interactive learning and communication

PLATO users swapped jokes and stories on their online network, and they reveled in this new sociability.

Technological innovations. The PLATO system at the University of Illinois pioneered many features of modern computing, including touch screens, instant messaging, and online forums. These innovations enabled new forms of interactive learning and social computing.

Community building. PLATO users formed a vibrant online community, engaging in both educational and social activities. The system's communication features fostered a sense of belonging and shared culture among its users.

• PLATO innovations:
  • Plasma display panels
  • Touch-sensitive screens
  • Online messaging and forums
• Community features:
  • Multiplayer games
  • Collaborative learning tools
  • User-generated content

7. The shift from computing citizens to consumers changed digital culture

We have lost our computing citizenship. We consume computing via ubiquitous laptops, smartphones, and tablets.

Commercialization of computing. As personal computers became widely available in the 1980s, the focus shifted from communal, institution-supported computing to individual ownership and consumption. This transition changed the nature of digital culture and user engagement.

Loss of communal ethos. The early time-sharing networks fostered a sense of shared responsibility and collaboration among users. The move to personal computers and later to commercial internet services altered this dynamic, emphasizing individual consumption over collective creation.

• Factors in the shift:
  • Rise of personal computer industry
  • Commercialization of software
  • Emergence of proprietary online services
• Consequences:
  • Decreased emphasis on user programming
  • Shift from active creators to passive consumers
  • Erosion of community-oriented computing spaces

Last updated: August 8, 2024