A Rulebook for Arguments

1. Good arguments are essential for finding truth and explaining ideas

Argument is essential, in the first place, because it is a way of finding out which views are better than others.

Arguments as inquiry. Arguments help us explore different viewpoints and determine which are most supported by evidence and reasoning. They allow us to critically examine our own beliefs and those of others. By engaging in argumentation, we can uncover flaws in thinking, strengthen sound positions, and arrive at better-justified conclusions.

Explaining and defending ideas. Once we've arrived at well-supported views, arguments allow us to articulate our reasoning to others. Rather than merely asserting opinions, good arguments provide evidence and logical steps that allow others to evaluate the merits of a position for themselves. This process of explaining and defending ideas through argument is crucial for advancing knowledge and understanding in all fields.

2. Short arguments follow general rules for clarity and effectiveness

Resolve premises and conclusion.

Distinguish premises from conclusion. A clear argument separates the reasons given (premises) from the claim being supported (conclusion). This allows both the arguer and audience to examine each component critically.

Use concrete language. Vague or abstract wording obscures meaning. Specific, vivid language makes arguments easier to understand and evaluate.

Maintain consistent terms. Using the same phrasing for key ideas throughout an argument improves clarity and highlights logical connections.

• Other key rules:
  • Start from reliable premises
  • Be concise
  • Focus on substance, not emotionally loaded language

3. Arguments by example require multiple, representative cases

Use more than one example.

Multiple examples strengthen generalizations. A single case may be an exception, but multiple supporting instances lend more credibility to a general claim. The number of examples needed depends on the size of the set being generalized about.

Representativeness matters. Examples should accurately reflect the broader group or phenomenon being discussed. Biased or cherry-picked examples can lead to flawed conclusions.

• Consider:
  • Background rates and context
  • Potential counterexamples
  • Whether examples are typical or outliers

4. Analogies must draw relevant similarities between examples

Analogies require relevantly similar examples.

Focus on pertinent comparisons. Effective analogies highlight meaningful parallels between two situations or concepts. The similarities drawn should be directly relevant to the argument being made.

Recognize limits. No analogy is perfect - there will always be some differences between the compared items. A strong argument acknowledges these limits while emphasizing the relevant similarities.

• Key questions for evaluating analogies:
  • How similar are the examples in ways that matter for the argument?
  • Are there important differences that weaken the comparison?
  • Does the analogy illuminate the issue or obscure it?

5. Arguments from authority need reliable, impartial sources

Seek informed sources.

Evaluate expertise. Credible authorities should have relevant qualifications and up-to-date knowledge in the specific area being discussed. General credentials aren't always sufficient - expertise must match the particular claim.

Check for bias. Even knowledgeable sources may have conflicts of interest or ideological slants that affect their views. Seek out impartial experts and consider potential motivations behind claims.

• Best practices:
  • Cite sources fully
  • Cross-check multiple authorities
  • Be wary of outlier views among experts
  • Develop "Internet savvy" for online sources

6. Causal arguments start with correlations but require careful analysis

Correlations may have alternative explanations.

Correlation is not causation. While a relationship between two factors suggests a possible causal link, other explanations must be ruled out. The correlation could be coincidental, reversed (B causes A rather than A causes B), or caused by a third factor influencing both.

Work toward likely explanations. To strengthen causal claims:

• Propose plausible mechanisms connecting cause and effect
• Rule out alternative explanations
• Look for additional supporting evidence
• Consider the complexity of real-world causation

Remember that most effects have multiple contributing causes, and causes may interact in complex ways.

7. Deductive arguments follow strict logical forms

A properly formed deductive argument is an argument of such a form that if its premises are true, the conclusion must be true too.

Validity vs. soundness. A valid deductive argument guarantees the conclusion if the premises are true. A sound argument is both valid and has true premises. Common valid forms include:

• Modus ponens: If P, then Q. P. Therefore, Q.
• Modus tollens: If P, then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P.
• Hypothetical syllogism: If P, then Q. If Q, then R. Therefore, if P, then R.

Identifying form. Recognizing these structures helps evaluate arguments and construct strong ones. Be aware of common invalid forms that may seem persuasive but don't guarantee the conclusion, such as affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent.

8. Extended arguments explore issues thoroughly and address objections

Explore the issue.

Open-minded inquiry. Begin with questions rather than predetermined conclusions. Research various perspectives and be willing to revise initial views based on evidence.

Develop basic premises. Once you've outlined a main argument, provide supporting arguments for key premises that may be questioned or need clarification.

Address counterarguments. Anticipate and honestly engage with the strongest objections to your position. This demonstrates thorough consideration and can strengthen your overall case.

• Also important:
  • Consider alternative explanations or proposals
  • Acknowledge complexity and uncertainty where appropriate

9. Argumentative essays should be focused, clear, and well-structured

Your argument is your outline.

State your thesis clearly. Begin with a concise statement of your main claim or proposal. Avoid vague generalizations or merely describing a topic.

Use argument structure as organization. Let your main premises form the key sections of your essay. Within each section, provide evidence and reasoning to support that premise.

• Essential elements:
  • Introduction with clear thesis
  • Body paragraphs developing each main point
  • Treatment of objections
  • Conclusion summarizing key arguments

Seek feedback on drafts to ensure your reasoning is clear to others.

10. Oral arguments require presence, signposting, and audience engagement

Be fully present.

Connect with your audience. Make eye contact, speak with expression, and be responsive to audience reactions. Your physical presence and energy are part of the persuasive power of a live presentation.

Guide your listeners. Use clear signposting to outline your argument's structure and mark key transitions. Repeat important points and summarize periodically.

Use visuals judiciously. Visual aids should support your argument, not distract from it. Ensure any slides or handouts are directly relevant and enhance understanding.

• Additional tips:
  • Practice to manage time effectively
  • End with a strong conclusion
  • Be prepared for questions

11. Public debates benefit from civility, common ground, and positive proposals

Work from common ground.

Listen actively. Seek to truly understand opposing views rather than just waiting to refute them. Ask questions to clarify others' reasoning.

Find areas of agreement. Look for shared values or goals, even if you disagree on means. This can create a foundation for more productive discussion.

Offer constructive solutions. Don't just critique - propose positive alternatives or ways forward. This shifts debate from purely oppositional to potentially collaborative problem-solving.

• Key principles:
  • Maintain civility and respect
  • Focus on arguments, not personal attacks
  • Acknowledge complexity and uncertainty
  • Be open to revising your own views

Last updated: August 4, 2024