Age of Revolutions

1. Revolutions in economics, technology, and identity reshape societies

"When you consider the multitude of dramatic changes in the world today, we are living through one of the most revolutionary ages in history."

Revolutions are interconnected. Economic shifts, technological innovations, and changes in identity often reinforce one another, creating a cycle of transformation. This pattern has repeated throughout history, from the Dutch Republic's rise in the 16th century to today's digital revolution.

Change breeds backlash. While revolutions bring progress, they also disrupt existing social structures and power dynamics. This disruption often leads to resistance from those who feel threatened or left behind. The tension between progress and backlash is a recurring theme in revolutionary periods.

• Examples of revolutionary periods:
  • The Dutch Republic's commercial revolution
  • England's Glorious Revolution
  • The French Revolution
  • The Industrial Revolution
  • The current digital and globalization revolution

2. The Dutch Republic pioneered modern capitalism and liberal democracy

"The Netherlands was different. One would have searched in vain for a single ruler or head of state. Power lay in a patchwork of city and provincial governments, with elected princes and rowdy assemblies, merchant associations, and guilds."

Geography shaped Dutch society. The Netherlands' unique landscape, largely reclaimed from the sea, fostered a culture of cooperation and decentralized power. This contrasted with the centralized monarchies prevalent in the rest of Europe.

Economic innovation fueled political change. The Dutch developed new financial instruments, created the first modern stock exchange, and pioneered global trade networks. This economic dynamism supported a more open and tolerant society, allowing for religious freedom and democratic governance.

• Key Dutch innovations:
  • Joint-stock companies
  • Modern banking system
  • Efficient shipbuilding (the fluyt)
  • Public-private partnerships in trade and colonization

3. England's Glorious Revolution of 1688 established parliamentary supremacy

"England would become perhaps the first society in human history to permanently stay within what scholars Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson call 'the Narrow Corridor': a path between tyranny and anarchy."

Peaceful transition to constitutional monarchy. The Glorious Revolution, unlike its French counterpart, achieved significant political change without widespread violence. This set a precedent for gradual, evolutionary reform rather than radical upheaval.

Economic and political liberalism reinforced each other. The new political order protected property rights and encouraged entrepreneurship, while economic growth strengthened the merchant class that supported parliamentary power.

• Key outcomes of the Glorious Revolution:
  • Bill of Rights (1689)
  • Regular parliamentary sessions
  • Limits on royal power
  • Religious tolerance for Protestants

4. The French Revolution's top-down approach led to chaos and backlash

"French leaders tried to impose modernity and enlightenment by top-down decree on a country that was largely unready for it."

Radical change outpaced social readiness. Unlike the gradual changes in the Netherlands and England, French revolutionaries attempted to remake society overnight. This led to intense resistance and violence.

The revolution devoured its children. Initial ideals of liberty and equality gave way to the Reign of Terror and eventually Napoleon's dictatorship. This pattern of radicalization and authoritarian backlash would be repeated in future revolutions.

• Stages of the French Revolution:
  1. Liberal reforms (1789-1792)
  2. Radical phase and Reign of Terror (1792-1794)
  3. Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1799)
  4. Napoleonic Era (1799-1815)

5. Britain's Industrial Revolution transformed the world economy

"The Industrial Revolution 'was probably the most important event in world history,' wrote Eric Hobsbawm, 'and it was initiated by Britain.'"

Technological innovation drove unprecedented growth. Inventions like the steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom dramatically increased productivity and reshaped the economy.

Social and cultural transformation accompanied economic change. Urbanization, the rise of the working class, and new forms of social organization emerged alongside industrial growth. This period also saw the development of modern concepts of leisure and consumer culture.

• Key factors in Britain's industrial success:
  • Abundant coal resources
  • Strong patent system
  • Stable political environment
  • Global trade networks
  • Culture of practical innovation

6. America's true revolution was industrial, not political

"The American Revolution was curiously unrevolutionary. In a sense it was not even a revolution—that is, a comprehensive social, economic, and political transformation—but rather a struggle for national independence."

Continuity in social structures. The American Revolution did not fundamentally alter the social hierarchy or economic system of the colonies. Slavery persisted, and the elite remained largely in control.

Industrial growth reshaped American society. The real transformation came in the 19th century with rapid industrialization, which changed the economy, demographics, and social relations far more than the political revolution had.

• Key aspects of America's industrial revolution:
  • Expansion of railroads
  • Rise of factory system
  • Urbanization and immigration
  • Technological innovations (e.g., telegraph, sewing machine)

7. Globalization and the digital age have accelerated change and disruption

"The theme of this book has been ceaseless action and reaction, progress and backlash. Even the most successful revolutions that produced lasting prosperity, like the Dutch, British, and American examples in this book, generated deep resistance."

Unprecedented interconnectedness. Global trade, communication networks, and digital technologies have created a world where changes in one area can rapidly affect the entire planet.

Disruptive innovation reshapes industries and societies. The digital revolution has transformed how we work, communicate, and live, creating new opportunities but also displacing traditional jobs and social structures.

• Major forces of contemporary globalization:
  • Internet and digital technologies
  • Global supply chains
  • Mass air travel
  • Instantaneous communication
  • Financial integration

8. The rise of China and resurgence of Russia challenge the liberal order

"For these countries, geopolitics is important, but so is development. They will want to balance both, finding ways to cooperate economically with China while also maintaining some kind of geopolitical relationship with the United States—investing in their economic future but buying insurance, as it were, against Chinese domination."

Shift in global power dynamics. The post-Cold War unipolar moment of U.S. dominance is giving way to a more multipolar world, with China as a rising superpower and Russia reasserting its influence.

Competing visions of world order. China and Russia challenge aspects of the liberal international order, promoting alternative models of governance and international relations that prioritize state sovereignty over individual rights and liberal democracy.

• Key areas of geopolitical tension:
  • Trade disputes
  • Technological competition
  • Territorial claims (e.g., South China Sea, Ukraine)
  • Influence in developing countries

9. Identity politics and populism threaten liberal democracy worldwide

"These atavistic impulses have generated much energy throughout history, though also, let us not forget, much cruelty and oppression."

Backlash against globalization and rapid change. Many people feel left behind by economic and social transformations, leading to a resurgence of nationalism and populism.

Crisis of meaning in liberal societies. The weakening of traditional sources of identity and community (religion, nation, family) has created a vacuum that populist movements exploit by offering simple, often exclusionary visions of belonging.

• Manifestations of populist backlash:
  • Anti-immigration sentiment
  • Economic protectionism
  • Cultural conservatism
  • Distrust of elites and experts
  • Attacks on democratic institutions

Last updated: April 10, 2025