Alexander the Great

1. Philip's Military Genius Forged Macedonia's Power

History has been so fascinated with Alexander the Great that it has overlooked the genius of his father.

Philip's transformation. Philip II inherited a weak, threatened kingdom on the northern edge of Greece but transformed it into the dominant power in the Greek world through military innovation and shrewd diplomacy. His time as a hostage in Thebes exposed him to advanced military tactics, which he adapted for Macedonia.

Revolutionary army. Philip created a professional army unlike any seen before. Key innovations included:

• The sarissa: An 18-foot pike allowing infantry to engage enemies from a distance.
• Coordinated units: Integrating cavalry and infantry for combined assaults.
• Engineers: A dedicated corps for siege warfare and logistics.
• Iron discipline: Rigorous training and strict rules for all ranks.

Foundation for conquest. Philip's victories against Illyrians, Paeonians, Thracians, and Greeks secured Macedonia's borders and provided the wealth (timber, minerals) to fund his army. His victory at Chaeronea in 338 B.C. brought Greece under Macedonian control, setting the stage for the invasion of Persia. Alexander inherited not just a kingdom, but the military machine and strategic vision his father built.

2. Alexander's Youthful Ambition and Divine Destiny

“My son, you must seek out a kingdom equal to yourself—Macedonia is not big enough for you!”

Prodigy from birth. Born in 356 B.C., Alexander's early life was steeped in Macedonian royal tradition, Greek culture, and military training. Tutors like Leonidas instilled toughness, while Aristotle provided a classical education, fostering a love for Homer and science.

Signs of greatness. Even as a boy, Alexander showed remarkable qualities:

• Taming Bucephalas: At age 12, he mastered a wild stallion others feared, impressing Philip.
• Meeting Persian envoys: As a child, he questioned them about Persian roads, the king, and the army, showing early strategic interest.
• Regent at 16: Philip left him in charge, and Alexander put down a Thracian rebellion, founding his first city, Alexandropolis.

Divine aspirations. Influenced by his mother Olympias's devotion to mystical cults and stories of miraculous conception, Alexander grew up believing he might be divinely fathered. This belief, later reinforced by the oracle at Siwa, fueled his ambition and provided powerful propaganda.

3. Securing the Throne Through Swift and Ruthless Action

Thus at the age of twenty Alexander inherited the kingdom of Macedonia, beset as it was by great jealousy, bitter hatred, and dangers on every side.

Philip's assassination. Philip was murdered in 336 B.C. by a disgruntled bodyguard, Pausanias, amidst court intrigue potentially involving Olympias and even Alexander. Alexander, just 20, immediately claimed the throne.

Eliminating rivals. Facing numerous threats from within Macedonia and rebellious Greek states, Alexander acted decisively:

• Executed rivals: Swiftly dealt with potential claimants and those suspected in Philip's murder.
• Secured army loyalty: Addressed the troops, promising glory and tax repeal, winning their crucial support.
• Purged opposition: Systematically removed or neutralized figures tied to the old regime or potential threats, notably Attalus and later Parmenion's family.

Subduing Greece. Greek cities, hoping to regain independence, revolted. Alexander's rapid response was brutal and effective:

• Forced Thessaly's submission: Outflanked their position at Tempe.
• Accepted Thebes' surrender: Arrived unexpectedly fast, forcing their hand initially.
• Destroyed Thebes: When Thebes rebelled again based on false rumors of his death, Alexander besieged and utterly destroyed the city, selling survivors into slavery, sending a chilling message to all of Greece.

4. Daring Strategy and Personal Courage Defined Early Victories

Alexander was a master of propaganda in war.

Crossing the Hellespont. In 334 B.C., Alexander began his invasion of Persia, crossing into Asia Minor. He performed symbolic acts, like throwing his spear onto Asian soil, claiming it as spear-won territory.

Granicus River. Facing Persian satraps and mercenaries, Alexander attacked across the river, a risky move. His tactical genius and personal bravery were key:

• Outflanking maneuver: Drew Persian cavalry away, creating a gap.
• Personal combat: Fought in the thick of battle, saved by Cleitus.
• Ruthless aftermath: Slaughtered Greek mercenaries fighting for Persia as a warning.

Halicarnassus siege. This heavily fortified city proved a tough challenge. Alexander's persistence and adaptability were tested:

• Faced strong defenses: Walls, fortresses, and a Persian fleet supporting the city.
• Overcame setbacks: Initial assaults failed, requiring engineers and new tactics.
• Won after months: Took the city but at significant cost, showing the difficulty of siege warfare.

Winter campaigns. Unlike traditional generals, Alexander campaigned year-round, keeping enemies off balance and securing territory in Asia Minor during winter months.

5. Mastering the Mediterranean Coast and Egyptian Riches

Alexander had won glory and honor at Issus, but not the vast amounts of gold he had hoped for...

Victory at Issus. In 333 B.C., Alexander faced Darius III's massive army. Darius chose a narrow plain, negating his numerical advantage.

• Alexander's charge: Led his cavalry wedge directly at Darius's position.
• Darius's flight: The Great King fled, causing his army to collapse.
• Captured family: Alexander captured Darius's mother, wife, and children, treating them with respect, a strategic move to gain legitimacy.

Securing the coast. Instead of pursuing Darius, Alexander focused on denying the Persian navy bases:

• Phoenician cities: Sidon welcomed him, but Tyre resisted, leading to a brutal 7-month siege.
• Siege of Tyre: Alexander built a causeway to the island city, overcame ingenious defenses, and ultimately stormed the walls, resulting in a massacre and enslavement of the population.
• Gaza: This fortress city also resisted, and Alexander took it after a difficult siege, showing extreme cruelty to the governor.

Conquest of Egypt. Egypt, resentful of Persian rule, surrendered peacefully in 332 B.C. Alexander presented himself as a liberator:

• Respected religion: Honored Egyptian gods, sacrificed to Ptah, and was likely crowned pharaoh.
• Founded Alexandria: Established a major city on the coast, envisioning it as a center of trade and Hellenistic culture.
• Siwa Oracle: Journeyed into the desert to consult the oracle of Zeus-Ammon, seeking confirmation of his divine parentage and destiny.

6. The Heart of Persia Fell, Marked by Glory and Destruction

By openly rewarding Mazaeus with control of such an important city, the king was sending an unmistakable signal to those who had once served Darius that the new lord of the lands was merciful and reasonable.

Gaugamela Showdown. In 331 B.C., Alexander faced Darius's final, massive army on a prepared plain.

• Daring maneuver: Alexander shifted his line far right, drawing Persian cavalry away.
• Breakthrough: Exploited a gap in the Persian center, charging towards Darius.
• Darius's second flight: The Persian king fled again, sealing his army's defeat despite initial Persian success against Parmenion's wing.

Taking Babylon. Mazaeus, the Persian satrap, surrendered Babylon peacefully. Alexander entered the city as a liberator:

• Respected local customs: Ordered the temple of Bel-Marduk restored and honored local gods.
• Appointed Persian satrap: Reinstated Mazaeus, signaling a policy of integrating native officials into his administration.
• Gained immense wealth: Secured the vast treasury of Babylon.

Susa and Persepolis. Alexander marched to the Persian capitals, securing immense wealth.

• Susa: Gained vast treasures and continued the policy of appointing Persian officials.
• Persepolis: The symbolic heart of the empire, Alexander allowed his troops to sack the city, resulting in widespread slaughter and destruction.
• Burning the Palace: The magnificent palace of Xerxes was burned, an act debated by historians as revenge or calculated policy.

7. Relentless Pursuit and Betrayal in the Eastern Provinces

The endgame had to be shah mat, a Persian phrase that would evolve in time into checkmate.

Darius's flight. After Gaugamela, Darius fled east towards Media and Bactria, hoping to raise a new army and wage a guerrilla war. Alexander pursued him relentlessly.

Parmenion's demise. As Alexander chased Darius, he systematically removed Parmenion's family from power.

• Philotas's conspiracy: Alexander's friend Philotas, Parmenion's son, was accused of plotting against the king, tortured into confession, and executed by the army.
• Parmenion's murder: Alexander sent orders to Ecbatana to assassinate the aging general, eliminating the last major threat from the old guard.

Darius's murder. Bessus, the satrap of Bactria and Darius's kinsman, arrested the fleeing king. Alexander pursued Bessus at breakneck speed across deserts and mountains.

• Capture of Darius: Alexander's men found Darius dying in a wagon after Bessus stabbed him.
• Alexander's reaction: Wept over his rival's body, ordered a royal burial, but was frustrated that Darius's death by betrayal complicated his claim to the throne and prolonged the war.

Bessus's fate. Bessus claimed the Persian throne as Artaxerxes V but was eventually betrayed by his own allies, the Sogdians led by Spitamenes.

• Handed over: Spitamenes surrendered Bessus to Alexander's general Ptolemy.
• Mutilation and execution: Alexander had Bessus publicly mutilated and executed according to Persian custom for regicide, solidifying his own position as the avenger of Darius.

8. Unyielding Spirit Against Unseen Foes in Central Asia

Alexander advanced nonetheless, with great struggles, through deep snow and with few supplies, but still he pressed on.

Hindu Kush crossing. Alexander led his army across the towering Hindu Kush mountains in winter, a feat of immense difficulty and suffering, to surprise Bessus in Bactria.

Bactria and Sogdiana. These eastern provinces proved challenging.

• Scorched earth: Bessus's policy left the land barren, hindering Alexander's logistics.
• Elusive enemy: Spitamenes, a Sogdian lord, waged a highly effective guerrilla war with his cavalry, melting into the vast steppes.
• Brutal tactics: Alexander responded with widespread destruction of villages and massacres of populations suspected of aiding the rebels.

Personal struggles. The campaign took a heavy toll on Alexander:

• Wounds: Suffered injuries, including a broken leg and a severe head wound.
• Illness: Contracted dysentery from contaminated water.
• Frustration: Faced an enemy he could not catch or decisively defeat for two years.

Cleitus's murder. In a drunken rage in Samarkand, Alexander killed his old friend Cleitus the Black, who criticized the king's adoption of Persian customs and perceived slights against Philip. This act deeply troubled Alexander and his army.

Securing the frontier. Despite setbacks, Alexander established garrisons and founded cities like Alexandria Eschate on the Jaxartes River, marking the northernmost extent of his empire and a base for future expansion into Scythia.

9. Pushing to India's Edge, Until the Army Said No More

“Alexander, brave deeds are what true men do.”

Invasion of India. In 327 B.C., Alexander began his campaign in the Indus valley, a land of diverse kingdoms and challenging geography.

Battle of the Hydaspes. Alexander faced King Porus, a powerful Indian ruler with war elephants.

• River crossing: Alexander executed a complex, risky river crossing during the monsoon season to outflank Porus.
• Elephant warfare: His troops developed tactics to counter the terrifying war elephants.
• Victory and respect: Defeated Porus, but admired his courage and reinstated him as a satrap, gaining a valuable ally.

Malli campaign. Marching south, Alexander faced fierce resistance from tribes like the Malli.

• Brutal fighting: Engaged in difficult assaults on fortified cities.
• Near-fatal wound: Alexander was critically wounded by an arrow during the assault on a Malli city, puncturing his lung.
• Army's despair: His troops feared he was dead, showing their deep attachment to him.

Mutiny on the Hyphasis. After conquering the Punjab, Alexander wanted to push east to the Ganges River and beyond.

• Army's refusal: His exhausted troops, led by Coenus, refused to go farther, longing for home after years of campaigning.
• Alexander's reaction: Was furious but ultimately forced to turn back, sacrificing his dream of reaching the Ganges.

10. The Grueling Return and Consolidation of a Vast Empire

Alexander was and is the absolute embodiment of pure human ambition with all its good and evil consequences.

Return route. Instead of returning via Bactria, Alexander chose a southern route through the Gedrosian desert, partly to support his fleet exploring the coast and partly for the glory of achieving a feat others had failed.

Gedrosian Desert march. This proved to be one of the most difficult episodes of the campaign.

• Extreme suffering: Thousands of soldiers and most civilians died from heat, thirst, and flash floods.
• Leadership tested: Alexander shared his men's suffering, refusing water when they had none, boosting morale.
• Fleet's survival: Admiral Nearchus successfully navigated the unknown coast, eventually reuniting with Alexander.

Purging corrupt officials. Upon returning to the heartland of his empire, Alexander found many governors had abused their power during his absence.

• Widespread corruption: Officials, both Macedonian and native, had enriched themselves and acted independently.
• Ruthless response: Alexander swiftly arrested and executed many, including the satrap of Susa and his old friend Harpalus, who fled with treasury funds.

Integrating Persians. Alexander continued his policy of integrating Persians into his administration and army.

• Mass wedding: Married Persian princesses and arranged marriages for his officers and soldiers to native noblewomen at Susa.
• Training native youth: Continued training 30,000 Persian youths as Macedonian soldiers, a move resented by his veterans.

Opis mutiny. Macedonian veterans, feeling replaced by foreign troops and tired of campaigning, mutinied at Opis.

• Alexander's response: Delivered an impassioned speech reminding them of their origins and achievements, then withdrew, appointing Persians to command roles.
• Reconciliation: The soldiers begged forgiveness, and Alexander reconciled with them, sending home only those truly unfit for service.

11. A King's Final Days, Marked by Grief and Unfinished Plans

To whom do you leave your kingdom?

Grief for Hephaestion. Alexander's closest friend, Hephaestion, died suddenly in Ecbatana in 324 B.C. Alexander was devastated, ordering extravagant mourning rituals and monuments, showing the depth of his personal attachments.

Final plans. Despite his grief, Alexander continued planning future conquests:

• Arabia: Prepared a major expedition to conquer the Arabian peninsula by land and sea.
• Mediterranean expansion: Envisioned conquering Carthage, Italy, Spain, and possibly circumnavigating Africa.
• Eastern campaigns: Planned to complete the conquest of Scythia and potentially return to India.

Return to Babylon. Ignoring warnings from Chaldean priests, Alexander entered Babylon in 323 B.C., his planned staging ground for the Arabian expedition.

Ill omens. His final days were marked by a series of disturbing signs and portents, interpreted by many as divine warnings.

Final illness. After a banquet and heavy drinking, Alexander fell ill with a fever. His condition worsened rapidly over several days.

• Army's concern: Soldiers were allowed to file past his bed as he lay dying.
• Succession unclear: With no clear heir and his wife Roxane pregnant, the future of the empire was uncertain.

Death. Alexander died in Babylon in June 323 B.C., just shy of his 33rd birthday. His last words regarding the succession were reportedly "To the strongest."

12. Alexander's Enduring Legacy Reshaped the Ancient World

It seems that there was no nation, no city in those days, no person in any land that the name of Alexander had not reached.

Wars of the Successors. Alexander's death plunged his empire into decades of civil wars among his generals, who fought for control of his vast territories. Few of his friends and family survived these conflicts.

Hellenistic Age. Despite the political fragmentation, Alexander's conquests initiated the Hellenistic period, spreading Greek language, culture, and institutions across the Mediterranean, Near East, and parts of Asia.

• New cities: The Alexandrias he founded became centers of Greek culture and administration.
• Cultural fusion: Greek and local cultures blended, influencing art, philosophy, and religion in regions like Egypt, Persia, and India.

Impact on religion. Alexander's empire facilitated the spread of religious ideas and practices.

• Eastern cults: Greek gods were identified with Eastern deities (e.g., Zeus-Ammon).
• Judaism: Hellenistic culture influenced Jewish life, leading to the Septuagint translation and internal conflicts.
• Christianity: The widespread use of Greek facilitated the rapid spread of early Christianity.

Historical views. Alexander's legacy is complex and debated:

• Admired conqueror: Seen by many in antiquity and later as a military genius and ideal king.
• Ruthless tyrant: Condemned by others for his brutality, destruction, and ambition.
• Lasting influence: Regardless of moral judgment, his impact on the course of history and the interaction of East and West is undeniable.

Last updated: May 12, 2025