Key Takeaways
1. Consciousness is Defined by Its Relationship to Being
For the being of an existent is exactly what it appears.
Being and appearance are intertwined. Sartre challenges the traditional philosophical dualism between being and appearance, asserting that the being of an existent is precisely what it appears to be. There is no hidden reality behind the appearance; the appearance itself is the measure of being.
Rejection of dualisms. This perspective overcomes dualisms such as interior/exterior, potency/act, and essence/appearance. Instead, Sartre proposes a monism of the phenomenon, where appearances are all equal and refer to each other without any privileged status.
The phenomenon as relative-absolute. The phenomenon is relative because it requires someone to whom it appears, but it is also absolute because it reveals itself as it is. It is not a mere illusion or distortion of a true being but a full positivity that can be studied and described as such.
2. Nothingness Arises from Human Consciousness
The permanent possibility of nonbeing, outside us and within, conditions our questions about being.
Nonbeing is integral to reality. Sartre argues that nonbeing is not merely an absence or negation but a real component of the world, particularly in relation to human consciousness. Questions, destruction, and negative judgments all reveal the presence of nothingness.
Humanity as the origin of nothingness. It is through human consciousness that nothingness enters the world. Human beings, by their capacity to question, destroy, and negate, introduce the possibility of nonbeing into the fullness of being.
Nothingness and expectation. Nonbeing often appears within the limits of human expectation. When we expect to find something and it is not there, we experience a pre-judicative comprehension of nothingness. This experience is objective and not merely a subjective illusion.
3. Bad Faith is a Fundamental Mode of Human Existence
Consciousness is not a mode of particular knowledge which may be called an inner meaning or self-knowledge; it is the dimension of transphenomenal being in the subject.
Bad faith as self-deception. Sartre defines bad faith as a lie to oneself, a way of evading the truth of one's own existence. It involves a fundamental dishonesty where one simultaneously knows and hides the truth.
The structure of bad faith. Bad faith requires the unity of a single consciousness, where the deceiver and the deceived are the same person. This creates a paradox, as it seems impossible to lie to oneself deliberately and cynically.
Translucency of consciousness. The translucency of consciousness means that one must be aware of their bad faith, at least to some extent. This further complicates the concept, as it seems to imply a level of good faith within the act of bad faith.
4. The Body is Experienced Differently by the Self and Others
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
The body as a source of alienation. Sartre explores how the body, as it is perceived by others, can become a source of alienation. The Other's gaze fixes and objectifies the body, turning it into a thing with qualities and limitations.
The body as a limit to freedom. The body's facticity, its givenness and contingency, can feel like a constraint on freedom. We are not free to choose our bodies, and their limitations can hinder our projects and desires.
The body as a medium of expression. Despite its limitations, the body is also the means through which we express ourselves and engage with the world. It is the instrument of our actions and the vehicle for our experiences.
5. Freedom is Both a Gift and a Burden
Consciousness is a being such that in its being, its being is in question in so far as this being implies a being other than itself.
Condemned to be free. Sartre argues that human beings are "condemned to be free." This means that we are responsible for our choices and actions, even though we did not choose to be born or to have the freedom that defines us.
Freedom and responsibility. This freedom is not a faculty or a property but the very being of consciousness. It is a burden because it means that we are always responsible for ourselves and the world around us.
Anguish as the awareness of freedom. Anguish is the mode of being of freedom as consciousness of being. It is the recognition that we are the sole authors of our values and that there is no external justification for our choices.
6. The Other's Gaze Shapes Our Self-Perception
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
The Other as a mirror. Sartre introduces the concept of "the look," which refers to the way in which the Other's gaze shapes our self-perception. The Other's look reveals us to ourselves as objects, with qualities and limitations.
Shame and pride. Shame and pride are emotions that arise from our awareness of being seen by the Other. Shame is the recognition of our own objectification, while pride is the affirmation of our value in the eyes of the Other.
The battle for recognition. The relationship between consciousnesses is a constant struggle for recognition. Each consciousness seeks to impose its own view of the world and to define the other as an object within that world.
7. Love, Desire, and Hate are Modes of Relating to the Other
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
Love as appropriation of freedom. Sartre analyzes love as an attempt to appropriate the Other's freedom while preserving it as freedom. The lover seeks to be the sole object of the beloved's free choice.
Desire as incarnation. Desire is the attempt to possess the Other's body as flesh, to reduce the Other to a purely physical being. It involves a mutual incarnation, where each consciousness seeks to embody the other.
Hate as a rejection of the Other. Hate is the attempt to destroy the Other's freedom and reduce them to a mere object. It is a recognition of the Other's power to limit and define us, and a desire to eliminate that power.
8. Temporality is the Structure of Being-for-Itself
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
Being-for-itself and temporality. Sartre argues that temporality is not an external condition imposed on consciousness but an intrinsic structure of being-for-itself. The past, present, and future are not separate moments but interconnected dimensions of existence.
The past as facticity. The past is the in-itself that the for-itself has to be. It is the weight of our history, our limitations, and our unchosen circumstances.
The future as possibility. The future is the realm of possibility, the not-yet-existing that draws us forward. It is the horizon of our projects and the source of our freedom.
9. Action is Rooted in Freedom and Project
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
Action as intentional modification. Sartre defines action as the intentional modification of the world. It involves a project, a goal, and the use of means to achieve that goal.
Freedom as the condition of action. Freedom is the necessary condition for action. Without freedom, there would be no project, no goal, and no intentionality.
The interplay of freedom and facticity. Action is always situated within a context of facticity, the given circumstances and limitations that shape our choices. Freedom and facticity are intertwined, each influencing and defining the other.
10. The World Gains Meaning Through Human Consciousness
The transphenomenal being of what exists for consciousness is itself in itself (lui-même en soi).
Consciousness and the world. Sartre emphasizes that the world gains meaning through human consciousness. It is our projects, our choices, and our actions that give the world its significance.
The world as a reflection of our projects. The world is not a neutral or indifferent reality but a reflection of our values, our desires, and our fears. It is shaped by our freedom and our engagement with it.
The contingency of meaning. The meaning of the world is not fixed or predetermined but contingent and dependent on our choices. We are responsible for the meaning we find in the world and for the values that guide our actions.
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Review Summary
Being and Nothingness is Sartre's seminal work on existentialism, exploring themes of consciousness, freedom, and human existence. Readers find it dense and challenging, yet intellectually rewarding. The book's originality lies in its application of phenomenological methods to ontology. While some consider Sartre's ideas outdated, others praise his insights on human nature and responsibility. The text is known for its complex language and vivid examples. Critics debate its philosophical merit, but acknowledge its significant impact on 20th-century thought.
