Being Human

1. Humans share many behaviors with other animals, yet retain unique qualities

"Are we just another animal species? Additionally, after learning that we can alter functions of the cortex by spritzing oxytocin, we have to ask a similar question: Are we just a bunch of neurons?"

Shared behaviors: Humans and other animals exhibit surprising similarities in social behaviors:

• Chimpanzees engage in organized violence resembling warfare
• Baboons demonstrate cultural transmission of social norms
• Many species show prosocial behavior and empathy

Unique human qualities: Despite these similarities, humans possess distinctive traits:

• Advanced tool use and cultural transmission of skills
• Complex language and symbolic thinking
• Highly developed prefrontal cortex for executive functions

Neurobiological basis: Brain chemicals like vasopressin and oxytocin influence social behavior across species:

• Vasopressin affects male social bonding and monogamy
• Oxytocin promotes trust and social connections
• These chemicals reveal the biological underpinnings of complex social behaviors

2. Stress and socioeconomic status profoundly impact health across species

"If people can't live equally in their health as a function of their socioeconomic status, at least they should be autopsied at equal rates because this bias has caused all sorts of problems."

Socioeconomic gradient: Lower socioeconomic status correlates with higher disease incidence and mortality rates:

• Affects cardiovascular, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and psychiatric disorders
• Subjective perception of status matters as much as objective measures
• Income inequality within communities exacerbates health disparities

Stress and physiology: Chronic stress associated with lower socioeconomic status has measurable physiological effects:

• Elevated stress hormones like cortisol
• Increased inflammation and weakened immune function
• Alterations in brain structure and function

Historical implications: Socioeconomic biases in medical research have led to misunderstandings and errors:

• Disproportionate autopsies of the poor led to misdiagnosis of "status thymicolymphaticus"
• This imaginary disease resulted in harmful radiation treatments for infants
• Highlights the importance of diverse representation in medical studies

3. Parasites can manipulate host behavior in surprising ways

"Toxoplasma is not simply eliminating the pathways for fear in the brains of these rodents—it is doing it selectively."

Parasite strategies: Various parasites have evolved mechanisms to alter host behavior:

• Some make hosts more likely to be eaten by predators
• Others change mating behaviors or social interactions
• Manipulations can be highly specific to the parasite's life cycle

Toxoplasma example: This protozoan parasite demonstrates remarkable specificity in altering rodent behavior:

• Eliminates fear of cat odors in infected rodents
• Targets the amygdala, a brain region involved in fear processing
• May have subtle effects on human behavior, including risk-taking and mood

Evolutionary implications: Parasite-host interactions reveal:

• The complexity of evolved behaviors
• The interconnectedness of species in ecosystems
• Potential influences on human psychology and culture

4. Dreams reflect the interplay between different brain regions during sleep

"Dreams are dreamlike because your prefrontal cortex metabolically decreases during REM sleep. The result is that the limbic system is disinhibited and runs wild, and you have dreamlike content in your dreams."

Sleep stages: Different sleep stages involve distinct patterns of brain activity:

• Slow-wave sleep: Overall decrease in brain activity, restorative functions
• REM sleep: Increased activity in some regions, associated with dreaming

Brain regions in dreams: During REM sleep:

• Prefrontal cortex activity decreases, reducing logical constraints
• Limbic system becomes more active, increasing emotional content
• Visual association areas activate without primary visual cortex input

Implications: The unique brain state during dreaming may serve several functions:

• Memory consolidation and integration
• Emotional processing and regulation
• Creative problem-solving and cognitive flexibility

5. Dopamine drives anticipation and motivation more than reward itself

"Dopamine is not about happiness; it's about the pursuit of happiness."

Dopamine function: Contrary to popular belief, dopamine is more about motivation than pleasure:

• Increases in anticipation of rewards, not just upon receiving them
• Drives goal-directed behavior and effort
• Responds most strongly to uncertain or intermittent rewards

Behavioral effects: Dopamine's role in anticipation influences various behaviors:

• Gambling addiction: Intermittent rewards produce strong dopamine responses
• Work motivation: The possibility of success drives continued effort
• Consumer behavior: Anticipation of purchases can be more rewarding than ownership

Evolutionary perspective: Dopamine's function likely evolved to:

• Motivate resource-seeking behaviors
• Encourage exploration and learning
• Promote persistence in the face of uncertainty

6. Cultural attitudes toward death reveal deep-seated human needs

"Sometimes, getting the body back also helps you to overcome the denial of death, which is just a feature of our Westernized modern approach to death."

Reasons for body retrieval: Cultures worldwide show a strong desire to recover the bodies of the dead:

• Confirmation of death and closure for survivors
• Proper treatment of remains according to cultural beliefs
• Affirmation of social values and relationships

Cultural variations: Attitudes toward death and burial practices differ across societies:

• Some cultures revere ancestors, while others fear the dead
• Burial, cremation, and other disposal methods reflect cultural values
• Funeral rituals serve various social and psychological functions

Psychological implications: The treatment of the dead reveals:

• Human need for closure and ritual
• Importance of symbolism in processing grief
• Societal values and beliefs about life, death, and the afterlife

7. Metaphors and symbols have powerful neurobiological effects

"The brain has trouble distinguishing between physical and metaphorical versions of things that happen to use some of the same concepts."

Brain processing of metaphors: The brain often processes metaphorical concepts using the same neural circuits as literal experiences:

• Moral disgust activates the same brain regions as physical disgust
• Social pain involves similar neural pathways as physical pain
• Metaphors of warmth or weight can influence social judgments

Implications for communication: Understanding the brain's response to metaphors can inform:

• Effective use of language in persuasion and marketing
• The power of symbols in politics and social movements
• Therapeutic approaches that leverage metaphorical thinking

Cultural impact: The brain's literal processing of metaphors underlies:

• The emotional power of religious and cultural symbols
• The effectiveness of propaganda and dehumanizing language
• The potential for art and literature to evoke strong emotional responses

8. The aging brain remains capable of growth and adaptation

"Neurons can be born in the adult brain in response to all kinds of stimulating environments."

Neuroplasticity: Contrary to earlier beliefs, the adult brain maintains significant capacity for change:

• New neurons can form in certain brain regions throughout life
• Synaptic connections can strengthen or reorganize with experience
• Brain structure and function can adapt to new challenges

Factors influencing cognitive aging:

• Physical exercise promotes brain health and cognitive function
• Mental stimulation and learning new skills support neuroplasticity
• Social engagement and meaningful activities contribute to cognitive resilience

Implications for healthy aging: Understanding brain plasticity suggests strategies for maintaining cognitive health:

• Engage in lifelong learning and novel experiences
• Maintain physical activity and a healthy lifestyle
• Cultivate social connections and purposeful activities

Last updated: April 9, 2025