Children of Ash and Elm

1. The Viking Worldview: More Than Meets the Eye

Any attempt to understand the Vikings must first delve beneath that deceptive exterior to get inside their minds, even inside their bodies.

Beyond the Surface. The Vikings' world was not simply a collection of people and landscapes, but a complex tapestry woven with supernatural beings, multiple realms of existence, and a unique understanding of the human soul. To truly grasp their culture, one must move beyond the surface and explore their internal world.

A Shared Reality. The Vikings coexisted with a multitude of "Others," including gods, spirits, and creatures that were as real to them as trees and rocks. This wasn't a matter of belief, but of knowledge, an integral part of their natural world.

The Fourfold Soul. Each individual possessed not just a single soul, but a composite of separate beings: the hamr (physical shape), the hugr (mind/personality), the hamingja (luck), and the fylgja (guardian spirit). This complex understanding of personhood shaped their interactions with the world and each other.

2. The Making of Midgard: Creation and Cosmology

For all the fearful confusion about their identity among those they encountered, in the Vikings’ own minds there was never any doubt at all: they were the children of Ash, the children of Elm.

A Universe Forged in Violence. The Norse cosmos began with the void of Ginnungagap and was shaped through the violent dismemberment of the giant Ymir. His body became the earth, his blood the oceans, and his skull the sky. This unsettling origin story highlights the Vikings' acceptance of violence as a fundamental force in creation.

The World Tree. At the center of the Norse cosmos stood Yggdrasill, a giant ash tree connecting all nine realms, including Asgard (home of the gods), Midgard (the human world), Jotunheim (land of the giants), and Hel (the realm of the dead). This interconnectedness emphasized the Vikings' understanding of the universe as a unified whole.

The Gods and Their Roles. The Norse pantheon consisted of two families, the Aesir and the Vanir, each with distinct qualities and roles. Gods like Odin, Thor, Freyja, and Loki embodied war, wisdom, fertility, and trickery, reflecting the diverse aspects of human experience.

3. The Long Shadow of Rome: Setting the Stage for Change

In a very real sense, the ‘new world’ of Viking-Age Scandinavia began in a cold, unending winter beneath a darkened sun.

Interactions with the Empire. The Scandinavians of the Iron Age were deeply influenced by the Roman Empire, engaging in trade, military service, and cultural exchange. The Empire's decline created instability and opportunity in the North.

The Migration Period Crisis. The fifth and sixth centuries saw widespread social and political upheaval across Europe, impacting Scandinavia through migration, warfare, and economic disruption. This period of crisis led to the rise of new social structures and power dynamics.

The Climate Disaster. A series of volcanic eruptions in the sixth century caused a "dust veil" that plunged the Northern Hemisphere into a prolonged period of cold and darkness. This environmental catastrophe led to widespread famine, disease, and social collapse in Scandinavia.

4. The Sixth-Century Shock: Climate Crisis and Transformation

The recovery from a half-century of trauma was the beginning of something different, a new order of warlords and their retinues, of petty kingdoms ruled from great halls—and the whole culture of mythologized, ritual power that supported them—that would ultimately set the stage for the Viking phenomenon.

The Fimbulwinter's Legacy. The prolonged period of cold and darkness, known as the Fimbulwinter, had a profound impact on Scandinavian society, leading to mass mortality, settlement abandonment, and a shift in religious beliefs. This trauma shaped the Viking worldview and contributed to the rise of a new warrior culture.

Geomythology. The Norse myths, particularly the tale of Ragnarök, may have been influenced by the real-life experience of the sixth-century climate crisis. The stories of a world consumed by fire and ice reflected the anxieties and fears of a society grappling with environmental catastrophe.

Regional Variations. The impact of the sixth-century crisis varied across Scandinavia, with some regions experiencing greater devastation than others. This led to shifts in power and the emergence of new regional identities.

5. Power and Society: The Rise of New Elites

This new world was Midgard, the home of the people from whose collective consciousness it emerged: the Scandinavians.

The Consolidation of Power. The period following the sixth-century crisis saw the rise of militarized elites who consolidated land ownership, built great halls, and established new political structures. This marked a shift from communal governance to a more hierarchical system.

Hall Culture. The great hall became the center of social and political life, serving as a space for feasting, storytelling, and the performance of power. These halls were not just buildings, but symbols of authority and control.

The Warrior's Beauty. The new elites embraced a militaristic ethos, emphasizing honor, loyalty, and martial prowess. This warrior culture was reflected in their clothing, weapons, and burial rituals.

6. The Viking Ship: A Tool of Power and Mobility

What unites most of these perspectives is that they privilege the observer, looking in on the Vikings from the outside, and ignore how they themselves saw the world.

Master Mariners. The Vikings were renowned for their shipbuilding skills and their mastery of the sea. Their longships were not just vessels, but symbols of their power and mobility.

Ship Design and Function. Viking ships were designed for both raiding and trade, with shallow drafts that allowed them to navigate rivers and coastal waters. They were also capable of crossing the open ocean, enabling the Vikings to reach distant lands.

The Maritime Economy. The Viking ship was not just a tool of war, but also a key component of the Scandinavian economy. It facilitated trade, exploration, and the movement of people and goods across vast distances.

7. The Allure of the West: Raids, Trade, and Expansion

The Vikings are known today for a stereotype of maritime aggression—those famous longships, the plunder and pillage, the fiery drama of a ‘Viking funeral’.

The First Raids. The Viking Age began with a series of raids on coastal settlements in the British Isles, targeting monasteries and other undefended targets. These raids were driven by a combination of economic opportunity, political ambition, and religious fervor.

The Expansion of Raiding. Over time, the Viking raids grew in scale and intensity, with fleets of hundreds of ships attacking major cities and coastal regions across western Europe. These raids brought wealth, slaves, and new ideas back to Scandinavia.

The Viking Mindset. The Vikings were not just mindless barbarians, but complex individuals with their own motivations and rationales for their actions. They were driven by a desire for wealth, fame, and power, but also by a sense of adventure and a belief in their own destiny.

8. The Eastern Rivers: A Different Path to Wealth and Influence

No other contemporary peoples ranged over the then-known Eurasian and North Atlantic world to the same degree as the Scandinavians.

The Eastern Trade Routes. While the Vikings are often associated with the West, they also played a significant role in the trade networks of eastern Europe and Asia. They traveled along the rivers of Russia and Ukraine, connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.

The Rus'. The Vikings who ventured east became known as the Rus', a group of warrior-traders who established settlements and controlled trade routes along the rivers. They interacted with Slavic, Finnish, and Turkic peoples, creating a unique cultural blend.

Byzantium and the Silk Road. The Rus' traded with the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, exchanging furs, slaves, and other goods for silver, silk, and spices. They also served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army, forming the elite Varangian Guard.

9. The Diaspora Takes Root: New Worlds and Hybrid Cultures

The Viking world this book explores was a strongly multicultural and multi-ethnic place, with all this implies in terms of population movement, interaction (in every sense of the word, including the most intimate), and the relative tolerance required.

Settlement and Assimilation. The Vikings did not just raid and trade, but also settled in new lands, establishing colonies in the British Isles, Iceland, Greenland, and North America. These settlements led to the creation of hybrid cultures, blending Scandinavian traditions with those of the local populations.

The Danelaw. In England, the Vikings established a region known as the Danelaw, where Scandinavian law and customs prevailed. This led to a fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Norse cultures, with lasting impacts on language, place-names, and social structures.

The North Atlantic Colonies. The Vikings' westward expansion led to the discovery and settlement of Iceland, Greenland, and North America. These colonies represented a bold experiment in adaptation and survival, pushing the limits of human endurance.

10. The Conversion: A Clash of Beliefs and Power

In a literal sense, the Vikings are of course people of the past, dead and gone—but at the same time they inhabit a curiously haptic kind of prehistory, one that appears to return whatever pressure is applied to it.

The Coming of Christianity. The Viking Age saw the gradual conversion of Scandinavia to Christianity, a process that was often violent and disruptive. The new faith challenged traditional beliefs and practices, leading to social and political upheaval.

Syncretism and Resistance. The conversion process was not always straightforward, with elements of paganism and Christianity blending together in new and syncretic forms. There was also resistance to the new faith, particularly in rural areas.

The Role of Kings. The conversion of Scandinavia was largely driven by kings who saw Christianity as a way to consolidate their power and align themselves with the rest of Europe. This led to a top-down imposition of the new faith, often with limited popular support.

11. The End of an Era: The Legacy of the Viking Age

To seriously engage with the Vikings and their time is to embrace all these, and absolutely not to flatten them with stereotypes.

The Dissolution of the Diaspora. By the mid-eleventh century, the Viking Age was coming to an end. The Scandinavian colonies in the British Isles and Continental Europe were gradually absorbed into the surrounding cultures, while those in the North Atlantic faced environmental challenges and eventual abandonment.

The Rise of Nordic Nations. In Scandinavia itself, the Viking Age gave way to the rise of unified kingdoms, with Norway, Sweden, and Denmark taking their place on the stage of Christian Europe. These nations retained a strong sense of their Viking heritage, but also embraced new identities and values.

A Lasting Impact. The Viking Age left a lasting impact on the world, shaping the political and cultural map of Europe and leaving a legacy of exploration, trade, and cultural exchange. The Vikings' story continues to fascinate and inspire, reminding us of the power of human ambition and the enduring legacy of the past.

Last updated: April 14, 2025