Ethics

1. Ethics Explores Moral Judgments and Principles

When we do moral philosophy, we reflect on how we ought to live.

Ultimate Questions. Ethics, or moral philosophy, delves into the fundamental questions of how we should live, examining the principles that guide our actions and the reasons behind them. It's about understanding what's right and wrong, and why we should choose one path over another. This involves critical thinking, evaluating different viewpoints, and constructing arguments to support our moral beliefs.

Metaethics and Normative Ethics. Moral philosophy is divided into two main branches: metaethics and normative ethics. Metaethics explores the nature and methodology of moral judgments, questioning the meaning of terms like "good" and "ought," and examining the existence of moral truths. Normative ethics, on the other hand, focuses on establishing principles for how we ought to live, seeking to define right and wrong, justice, and virtue.

Personal and Intellectual Growth. Studying ethics is valuable for several reasons. It deepens our reflection on life's ultimate questions, improves our moral reasoning, and sharpens our general thinking skills. By engaging with ethical theories, we can develop a more reflective and well-reasoned approach to morality, enabling us to make wiser and more responsible choices.

2. Cultural Relativism: Morality as Social Approval

“X is good” means “The majority (of the society in question) approves of X.”

Socially Approved. Cultural relativism posits that morality is relative to culture, defining "good" as what is socially approved within a given society. This perspective suggests that moral principles are cultural constructs, similar to customs and traditions, and vary across different societies. It emphasizes tolerance and understanding of diverse cultural norms.

Problems with Cultural Relativism. Despite its initial appeal, cultural relativism faces significant challenges. It implies that we cannot consistently disagree with our society's values, as "good" is defined by social approval. This view also struggles to address moral issues that transcend cultural boundaries, such as human rights violations, and provides no basis for criticizing harmful practices within a society.

Objective Values. The rejection of objective values is a key component of cultural relativism. However, the argument that morality is a product of culture, or that cultures disagree widely about morality, does not necessarily negate the existence of objective moral truths. The existence of objective values allows for the possibility of moral progress and cross-cultural dialogue aimed at identifying universal ethical principles.

3. Subjectivism: Morality as Personal Feeling

When I say “This is good,” I’m talking about my own feelings — I’m saying “I like this.”

Individual Preferences. Subjectivism asserts that moral judgments are expressions of personal feelings, equating "good" with individual liking or approval. This view emphasizes moral freedom, allowing individuals to form their own moral beliefs based on their emotions. It rejects external impositions of values, such as those found in cultural relativism.

Limitations of Subjectivism. Subjectivism faces criticism for its potential to justify harmful actions based on personal preferences. If "good" simply means "I like it," then actions like hurting others could be deemed morally acceptable if someone derives pleasure from them. This view also struggles to provide a basis for moral disagreement or criticism.

Ideal Observer View. To address the limitations of subjectivism, the ideal observer view proposes that moral judgments reflect how we would feel if we were fully informed and impartial. This approach combines feelings with rationality, suggesting that moral principles should be based on informed and impartial emotions, rather than mere personal preferences. It provides a framework for developing rational moral feelings through knowledge and empathy.

4. Supernaturalism: Morality as Divine Will

“X is good” means “God desires X.”

Religious Foundation. Supernaturalism grounds morality in the will of God, defining "good" as what God desires. This view sees ethics as intrinsically linked to religion, with moral principles derived from divine commands or religious texts. It provides a clear and objective basis for morality, appealing to a higher authority.

Challenges to Supernaturalism. Supernaturalism faces challenges, including the problem of knowing God's will and the potential for conflicting interpretations of religious texts. It also raises the question of whether morality depends on God's existence, and whether atheists can make meaningful moral judgments. Socrates' question challenges whether things are good because God desires them, or whether God desires them because they are inherently good.

Ethics and Religion. Despite the challenges, supernaturalism highlights the close connection between ethics and religion for many people. Religion often provides a strong motivation for moral behavior, offering a framework for moral education and a sense of accountability. However, it's possible to connect ethics and religion without fully grounding morality in divine will, allowing for a broader basis for moral reasoning.

5. Intuitionism: Morality as Self-Evident Truth

The basic moral truths are self-evident to a mature mind.

Objective Moral Truths. Intuitionism posits that "good" is an indefinable notion and that objective moral truths exist independently of human opinion. These truths, like mathematical axioms, are considered self-evident to a mature and rational mind. Moral knowledge is gained through intuition, a direct apprehension of moral principles.

Problems with Intuitionism. Intuitionism faces criticism for its reliance on subjective intuitions, which can vary widely among individuals and cultures. The lack of a clear method for resolving conflicting intuitions raises questions about the objectivity and reliability of this approach. It also struggles to account for the influence of social conditioning on moral beliefs.

Reconstructing Intuitionism. Despite its challenges, intuitionism highlights the importance of objective moral truths. To strengthen the view, it's necessary to search for moral principles that are precise and widely accepted among intelligent people, or to incorporate elements of the ideal observer view, emphasizing informed and impartial judgment. This reconstruction aims to provide a more robust foundation for moral knowledge.

6. Emotivism: Morality as Emotional Expression

“X is good” means “Hurrah for X!”

Emotional Exclamations. Emotivism asserts that moral judgments are expressions of personal feelings, rather than statements of fact. "Good" is equated with emotional exclamations like "Hurrah!" or "Boo!" This view denies the existence of moral truths or knowledge, seeing moral language as a means of expressing and influencing emotions.

Logical Positivism. Emotivism is often linked to logical positivism, which claims that only statements verifiable through sense experience or logical analysis are meaningful. Since moral judgments cannot be empirically verified or logically analyzed, they are deemed to be expressions of feeling. This perspective challenges traditional notions of moral objectivity and rationality.

Limitations of Emotivism. Emotivism faces criticism for its inability to account for moral reasoning or disagreement. If moral judgments are merely expressions of feeling, then there is no basis for rational debate or criticism. This view also struggles to explain the social functions of moral language, such as influencing behavior and promoting cooperation.

7. Prescriptivism: Morality as Universalizable Imperatives

“You ought to do this” is a universalizable prescription (not a truth claim); it means “Do this and let everyone do the same in similar cases.”

Universal Commands. Prescriptivism views moral judgments as universalizable prescriptions or imperatives, rather than truth claims. "You ought to do this" is equivalent to "Do this, and let everyone do the same in similar cases." This approach emphasizes the freedom to form moral beliefs while also providing a framework for rational moral reasoning.

Consistency and the Golden Rule. Prescriptivism relies on logical rules of consistency, including the principle that similar cases should be evaluated similarly and that moral beliefs should align with actions. These rules lead to a golden rule consistency condition, which requires individuals to desire that their actions be applied universally, including to themselves in similar situations. This framework provides a basis for criticizing inconsistent or irrational moral beliefs.

Rationality and Freedom. Prescriptivism seeks to balance moral freedom with rationality. Moral beliefs are seen as expressions of individual desires, but these desires are subject to rational scrutiny through consistency and universalizability. This approach offers a way to engage in moral reasoning without relying on external authorities or objective moral truths.

8. Consistency: The Foundation of Moral Reasoning

To be logically consistent, we must make similar evaluations about similar cases.

Four Consistency Principles. Consistency is a cornerstone of rational moral thinking, encompassing logicality, ends-means consistency, conscientiousness, and impartiality. These principles guide us in forming coherent and defensible moral beliefs. By avoiding inconsistencies, we can strengthen the rationality and integrity of our moral framework.

Logicality and Ends-Means. Logicality requires that our beliefs be free from contradictions and that we accept the logical consequences of our beliefs. Ends-means consistency demands that our actions align with our goals, ensuring that we take the necessary steps to achieve our desired outcomes. These principles promote coherence and effectiveness in our moral decision-making.

Conscientiousness and Impartiality. Conscientiousness calls for our actions to align with our moral beliefs, preventing hypocrisy and promoting integrity. Impartiality requires that we evaluate similar actions similarly, regardless of the individuals involved, ensuring fairness and objectivity. These principles promote moral integrity and fairness in our interactions with others.

9. The Golden Rule: Treat Others as You Want to Be Treated

Treat others only as you consent to being treated in the same situation.

Reciprocity and Empathy. The Golden Rule, a fundamental principle in many ethical systems, emphasizes reciprocity and empathy. It requires us to treat others as we would want to be treated in the same situation, promoting fairness and compassion. By considering the perspectives and feelings of others, we can make more ethical and responsible choices.

Derivation from Consistency. The Golden Rule can be derived from the principles of conscientiousness and impartiality. If we are conscientious and impartial, we will not do something to another unless we believe it would be all right, and thus are willing that it be done to us in the same situation. This derivation highlights the importance of consistency in moral reasoning.

Practical Application. To apply the Golden Rule effectively, we need knowledge and imagination. We must understand the impact of our actions on others and vividly imagine ourselves in their place. This requires empathy and a willingness to consider different perspectives, enabling us to make more informed and compassionate moral judgments.

10. Moral Rationality: Combining Consistency, Knowledge, and Empathy

We’re rational in our moral judgments to the extent that we’re consistent, informed, imaginative, and a few more things.

Four Pillars of Rationality. Moral rationality involves a combination of consistency, knowledge, imagination, and other factors. These elements work together to guide us in forming wise and responsible moral beliefs. By striving for greater rationality, we can improve the quality of our moral decision-making and promote ethical behavior.

Informed and Imaginative. Being informed requires us to understand the facts of a situation, alternative moral views, and our own biases. Being imaginative involves having a vivid and accurate awareness of the situation of others and the impact of our actions on their lives. These elements enhance our understanding and empathy, enabling us to make more compassionate and responsible choices.

Additional Factors. In addition to consistency, knowledge, and imagination, moral rationality also involves factors such as freedom of thought, concern for others, dialogue, and humility. These elements promote critical thinking, empathy, and open-mindedness, enabling us to engage in more meaningful and productive moral discussions.

11. Consequentialism: Morality Based on Outcomes

We ought always to do whatever maximizes the balance of pleasure over pain for everyone affected by our action.

Maximizing Good Consequences. Consequentialism asserts that the morality of an action is determined solely by its consequences. The right action is the one that maximizes good outcomes, regardless of the nature of the action itself. This view emphasizes the importance of considering the impact of our choices on others.

Classical Utilitarianism. A prominent form of consequentialism is classical utilitarianism, which defines "good" as pleasure and "bad" as pain. Utilitarians believe that we should always act to maximize the balance of pleasure over pain for everyone affected by our actions. This view can be based on the Golden Rule, God's will, or other foundational principles.

Rule Utilitarianism. To address the bizarre implications of act utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism proposes that we should follow the rules that, if generally adopted, would lead to the best consequences. This approach seeks to balance the focus on outcomes with the need for stable and predictable moral guidelines. It emphasizes the importance of considering the long-term effects of our actions and the social usefulness of moral rules.

12. Nonconsequentialism: Morality Based on Inherent Rightness

The basic moral principles say that we ought, other things being equal, to do or not to do certain kinds of things: keep our promises, do good to others, not harm others, and so forth.

Inherent Moral Value. Nonconsequentialism asserts that some actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences. This view emphasizes the importance of moral duties and principles, such as honesty, justice, and respect for persons. It challenges the consequentialist focus on outcomes, arguing that some actions are simply wrong in themselves.

Prima Facie Duties. W.D. Ross's prima facie view is a prominent form of nonconsequentialism. It proposes that we have a set of basic moral duties, such as fidelity, reparation, gratitude, beneficence, self-improvement, and nonmaleficence. These duties are prima facie, meaning that they hold "other things being equal," and can be overridden by stronger duties in certain situations.

Balancing Duties. Nonconsequentialism recognizes the complexity of moral decision-making, acknowledging that duties can conflict and that we must weigh them against each other. This approach emphasizes the importance of moral judgment and discernment in navigating ethical dilemmas. It seeks to balance the need for moral principles with the recognition that real-world situations often require nuanced and context-sensitive responses.

Last updated: February 21, 2025