From Plassey to Partition

1. Mughal Decline and the Rise of Regional Powers Transformed India

The eighteenth century in Indian history is not a dark age, nor an age of overall decline.

Political Transformation. The 18th century in India was marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire, not as a period of chaos, but as a transformation characterized by the rise of regional powers. These successor states, such as Bengal, Hyderabad, and Awadh, emerged from the decentralization of Mughal authority, maintaining some Mughal institutions while adapting to local power dynamics.

Regional States. These states were diverse, some founded by Mughal governors, others by rebels, and some asserting independence from previous autonomous positions. This era signified a shift in power rather than a collapse, with regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats challenging Mughal authority and establishing their own kingdoms.

Continuity and Change. Despite the decline of the Mughals, their symbolic authority persisted, with new states seeking legitimacy through Mughal sanction. The 18th century was a period of transformation, not a dark age, with the rise of regional powers and the eventual emergence of British dominance.

2. British Imperialism in India Was Driven by Complex Motives

Thus the growth of territorial empire in India was neither planned nor directed from Britain.

Multiple Drivers. British expansion in India was not a straightforward, centrally planned endeavor, but a complex process driven by various factors. These included the pursuit of trade, the need for revenue, responses to local political instability, and the ambitions of individuals on the ground.

Trade and Power. The East India Company's initial focus on trade gradually evolved into a quest for political control, driven by the desire to protect its commercial interests and exploit India's resources. The Company's trade was always armed trade.

Sub-Imperialism. The actions of Company officials in India, often acting independently of directives from London, played a significant role in shaping the course of British expansion. The expansion was primarily motivated by the fiscal and military needs of the Company, rather than interests of trade.

3. Ideologies Justified and Shaped British Rule

This imperial history of Britain is periodised into two phases, the "first empire" stretching across the Atlantic towards America and the West Indies, and the "second empire", starting from around 1783 (Peace of Paris) and swinging towards the East, i.e., Asia and Africa.

Evolving Justifications. British rule in India was justified by a range of ideologies that evolved over time. Early justifications included the idea of civilizing backward peoples and bringing order to a chaotic land.

Orientalism. The early phase of British rule was influenced by Orientalism, which sought to understand and appreciate Indian culture and traditions. However, this approach later gave way to a belief in the superiority of Western civilization and the need to reform Indian society.

Paternalism. Paternalism became a dominant ideology, with the British viewing themselves as benevolent guardians of the Indian people, guiding them towards progress and enlightenment. This ideology justified authoritarian rule and limited Indian participation in governance.

4. Parliament's Evolving Control Reflected Shifting Imperial Goals

The eighteenth century thus marked the beginning of self-confident territorial expansion in India, as imperial expansion and the financial strength of the Company came to be integrally connected.

Gradual Oversight. The British Parliament gradually increased its control over the East India Company's affairs in India, driven by concerns about corruption, mismanagement, and the need to regulate the Company's growing power. This control evolved through a series of acts, including the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784.

State Involvement. The British state became increasingly involved in the administration of India, driven by the desire to secure revenue, protect British interests, and maintain stability. The Government of India Act of 1858 marked the end of Company rule and the direct assumption of control by the British Crown.

Limited Self-Government. The British government gradually introduced elements of self-government in India, driven by a combination of factors, including nationalist pressure, the need for Indian cooperation, and a belief in the eventual progress of Indian society towards responsible government. The Government of India Act of 1919 and 1935 represented steps in this direction, but also maintained significant British control.

5. Land Revenue Extraction Shaped Colonial India's Economy

The major characteristic of eighteenth-century India was therefore the weakening of the centralised Mughal empire and a dispersal of political power across the regions.

Revenue Imperative. A primary goal of British rule in India was to extract land revenue, which was essential for financing the administration, military, and trade. Various land revenue systems were implemented, including the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari Settlement, and Mahalwari Settlement.

Impact on Society. These systems had a profound impact on Indian society, altering land ownership patterns, creating new social classes, and contributing to peasant indebtedness and unrest. The Permanent Settlement, for example, created a class of landlords who often exploited the peasantry.

Economic Consequences. The British land revenue policies contributed to the commercialization of agriculture, the decline of traditional industries, and the overall impoverishment of the Indian economy. The extraction of wealth from India also benefited the British economy.

6. Early Indian Responses Included Reform and Resistance

In most cases, these rebellions were led by the disaffected local zamindars and backed fully by the oppressed peasantry.

Diverse Reactions. Indian responses to British rule were diverse, ranging from social and religious reforms to armed resistance. Social and religious reform movements sought to modernize Indian society and address issues such as caste discrimination, sati, and widow remarriage.

Reform Movements. Reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj, aimed to purify and revitalize Indian religions and promote social progress. These movements were often influenced by Western ideas and sought to reconcile tradition with modernity.

Armed Resistance. Armed resistance to British rule took various forms, including peasant uprisings, tribal revolts, and the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. These movements were often driven by economic grievances, resentment of British policies, and a desire to restore traditional social and political structures.

7. The Rise of Indian Nationalism Challenged Colonial Rule

This narrative seeks to take the discussion of nationalism beyond that constricted discursive space where nation-state is situated at the centre and the existence of a homogeneous nation is uncritically accepted and it is supposed to have spoken in one voice.

Emergence of Nationalism. Indian nationalism emerged as a response to British rule, driven by a desire for self-determination and a sense of shared identity. Early nationalists sought to promote unity among Indians and challenge the legitimacy of British rule.

Ideological Influences. Indian nationalism was influenced by a range of ideologies, including liberalism, socialism, and religious revivalism. These ideologies shaped the goals and strategies of the nationalist movement.

Early Organizations. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, became the primary organization for articulating nationalist demands and mobilizing support for self-government. The Congress initially adopted a moderate approach, but later embraced more radical tactics.

8. Gandhi's Leadership Transformed the Nationalist Movement

This narrative seeks to take the discussion of nationalism beyond that constricted discursive space where nation-state is situated at the centre and the existence of a homogeneous nation is uncritically accepted and it is supposed to have spoken in one voice.

Gandhi's Arrival. Mahatma Gandhi's arrival on the Indian political scene in 1915 marked a turning point in the nationalist movement. Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolent resistance and his ability to mobilize mass support transformed the nature of Indian politics.

Satyagraha. Gandhi's method of satyagraha, or nonviolent civil disobedience, became a powerful tool for challenging British rule and mobilizing popular support. Satyagraha involved peaceful protests, boycotts, and non-cooperation with the government.

Mass Mobilization. Gandhi's leadership transformed the nationalist movement from an elite-led endeavor to a mass movement, drawing in people from all sections of Indian society. His emphasis on social justice and his ability to connect with the common people made him a powerful force for change.

9. Diverse Voices Contested the Nationalist Narrative

This book acknowledges the historical significance of the mass movement against colonial rule-the largest of its kind in world history in terms of its sheer scale-but shows that the masses rarely spoke in one voice.

Multiple Perspectives. The Indian nationalist movement was not a monolithic entity, but a complex and contested terrain with diverse voices and perspectives. Different social groups, including Muslims, non-Brahmans, Dalits, women, workers, and peasants, had their own distinct concerns and aspirations.

Minority Voices. Minority groups, such as Muslims and Dalits, often felt marginalized by the mainstream nationalist movement and sought to articulate their own distinct identities and demands. These groups challenged the dominant narrative of a unified Indian nation.

Social Justice. The struggle for social justice and equality was an integral part of the Indian nationalist movement, with various groups seeking to address issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, and economic exploitation. These struggles often challenged the dominant social and political order.

10. The Government of India Act of 1935 Reflected Imperial Ambivalence

The present endeavour however remains modest in its scope and focuses only on the colonial period of that continuing saga of adjusrment, accommodation and conflict.

Limited Autonomy. The Government of India Act of 1935 represented a significant step towards self-government, but also reflected British ambivalence about relinquishing control. The Act provided for provincial autonomy, but maintained significant British control over the central government.

Federal Structure. The Act proposed a federal structure, but the participation of the princely states was made conditional, and the federal provisions were never fully implemented. The Act also maintained separate electorates for various religious and social groups.

Nationalist Disappointment. The Act of 1935 failed to satisfy Indian nationalist aspirations for complete independence and self-determination. The Congress initially opposed the Act, but later decided to participate in provincial elections.

11. Freedom Came with the Agony of Partition

The celebrations of independence in August 1947 were marred by the agonies of a painful and violent partition, signalling the stark reality of Muslim alienation.

Growing Tensions. The years leading up to independence were marked by growing communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims, fueled by political competition and religious polarization. The Muslim League, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, increasingly advocated for a separate Muslim state of Pakistan.

Partition. The decision to partition India in 1947 was a traumatic event that resulted in widespread violence, displacement, and loss of life. The partition led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan.

Legacy of Division. The partition of India left a lasting legacy of division and conflict, with ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan. The partition also had a profound impact on the social, political, and economic landscape of the subcontinent.

Last updated: April 3, 2025