Global Politics

1. Global Politics Transcends Traditional State-Centric Views

Global politics encompasses not just politics at the ‘global’ level – that is, worldwide processes, systems, and institutional frameworks – but politics at, and, crucially, across, all levels – the worldwide, the regional, the national, and the subnational.

Beyond the state. Traditionally, international relations focused solely on states as the primary actors. Global politics, however, recognizes a more complex reality where power and influence operate across multiple levels and involve diverse actors. This moves beyond the "billiard ball" model of discrete states interacting.

Rise of new actors. The landscape of global politics is populated by more than just states. Transnational corporations (TNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), social movements, and even individuals now exert significant influence.

• TNCs wield immense economic power, often exceeding the GDP of many states.
• NGOs mobilize "soft power" and moral pressure on a global scale.
• Social movements like Black Lives Matter organize transnationally.

Interconnectedness matters. Global politics acknowledges the growing interdependence between actors and issues. Problems like climate change, pandemics, and financial crises demonstrate that events in one part of the world can have far-reaching consequences everywhere, requiring cooperation beyond state borders.

2. Globalization Creates Interconnectedness, Challenging Old Divides

Globalization is the emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness that means that our lives are increasingly shaped by events that occur, and decisions that are made, at a great distance from us.

Shrinking world. Globalization fundamentally alters the significance of geographical distance and territorial borders. It's not just about international relations (between states) but about transnational flows and interactions that cut across borders.

Multidimensional process. Globalization manifests in various forms, each with distinct implications:

• Economic globalization: Integration of national economies into a single global market (trade, investment, capital flows).
• Cultural globalization: Global flow of information, commodities, and images, potentially leading to homogenization or hybridization.
• Political globalization: Transfer of policy-making from national governments to international organizations.

Contested reality. While hyperglobalists see the state becoming obsolete in a borderless world, sceptics argue that globalization is exaggerated or merely a tool of powerful states. Transformationalists acknowledge profound changes but emphasize their uneven and complex nature.

3. History Shapes the Present, Marked by Empire, Wars, and Shifting Power

Politics can be defined as a struggle over the best way to live together as societies. The direction and recording of how this struggle plays out are the essence of what we call ‘history’.

Legacies of the past. Contemporary global politics is deeply rooted in historical processes, particularly the rise of European empires, industrialization, and the two World Wars. Colonialism, in particular, shaped the global distribution of wealth and power, creating enduring inequalities.

Twentieth-century transformations:

• World Wars: Demonstrated the devastating potential of industrialized total war and reshaped the global order.
• End of Empires: Led to the creation of dozens of new states, transforming the state system into a truly global one, but often leaving legacies of underdevelopment and conflict.
• Cold War: Defined by bipolar rivalry between the USA and USSR, shaping geopolitical conflicts and proxy wars across the globe.

Post-Cold War shifts. The collapse of the Soviet Union ushered in a period of US dominance, but this has been challenged by the rise of new powers, transnational threats like terrorism, and global economic crises, suggesting a return to multipolarity.

4. Traditional Theories Offer Contrasting Lenses on State Interaction

Realism and liberalism can be viewed as mainstream perspectives in the sense that they, in their various incarnations, have dominated conventional academic approaches within the discipline or field of ‘international relations’ (IR) theory.

Explaining state behavior. Traditional IR theories, primarily realism and liberalism, offer competing explanations for the balance between conflict and cooperation among states. They tend to be positivist, seeking objective explanations of the world "as it is."

Realism: Power and conflict. Realists view states as the key actors, driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power in an anarchic international system.

• Human nature is selfish and competitive.
• States prioritize survival and security.
• Order is maintained through the balance of power.

Liberalism: Cooperation and progress. Liberals offer a more optimistic view, emphasizing the potential for cooperation through interdependence, institutions, and democracy.

• Humans are rational and capable of cooperation.
• Trade and economic ties make war less likely.
• International law and organizations promote order.
• Democracies are inherently more peaceful, especially towards each other.

5. Critical Theories Challenge Power Structures and Dominant Narratives

Critical theories seek to challenge – both intellectually and materially – the profound injustices of prevailing social hierarchies.

Beyond the status quo. Unlike traditional theories that often explain or justify existing power dynamics, critical theories aim to expose and challenge structural inequalities and dominant narratives in global politics. They tend to be post-positivist and interpretive.

Diverse perspectives:

• Postcolonialism: Highlights the enduring legacies of colonialism and racism in shaping global power and knowledge.
• Feminism: Exposes how global politics is shaped by patriarchal structures and masculinist biases, marginalizing women and gender/sexual minorities.
• Marxism: Focuses on economic power, class exploitation, and the dynamics of global capitalism as drivers of conflict and inequality.
• Post-structuralism: Analyzes how language, discourse, and knowledge production are intertwined with power relations, shaping how we understand global politics.
• Constructivism: Emphasizes that identities, interests, and norms are socially constructed through interaction, offering a way to understand change in the international system.

Critiquing the mainstream. Critical theories argue that traditional approaches are often Eurocentric, masculinist, or serve the interests of powerful states and economic systems, failing to adequately address issues like race, gender, class, and structural violence.

6. The State Persists but is Transformed by Global Dynamics

Although the days of command-and-control economic management may be over, the state has sometimes reasserted itself as an agent of modernization.

Sovereignty under pressure. Globalization and the rise of non-state actors have challenged the traditional notion of state sovereignty and its exclusive control within borders. Economic flows, information technology, and transnational threats make borders more permeable.

Transformation, not demise. While some predicted the state's decline, it has proven resilient, adapting its role in response to new challenges.

• Competition state: Focuses on securing competitive advantages in the global economy.
• Market state: Embraces neoliberal principles, rolling back welfare and regulation.
• Postmodern state: Characterized by pluralism, decentralization, and a rejection of force (in some regions).

Return of state security. New threats like transnational terrorism have reinforced the state's unique capacity to maintain domestic order and protect citizens, leading to increased military spending and tighter security measures in many countries.

7. Identity, Culture, and Difference Drive Conflict and Cooperation

Identity and difference – our sense of who we are, and of where we stand in relation to others – have always been central to politics.

Defining self and other. Identity, whether based on nationality, religion, ethnicity, gender, or other factors, shapes our understanding of the world and our interests. It is often defined in opposition to perceived "difference," which can be a source of social and political conflict.

Cultural fault lines. Cultural and religious identities are increasingly seen as drivers of conflict in a post-Cold War world, as argued by the "clash of civilizations" thesis, though this view is contested.

• Religious revivalism and fundamentalism influence political agendas globally.
• Racial and ethnic identities are central to conflicts within and between societies.

Multiculturalism and hybridity. Increased migration and global interaction have led to more diverse societies, raising questions about how different identities and cultures can coexist. Multiculturalism and the mixing of cultures (hybridity) offer alternatives to homogenization but also create new tensions.

8. Power Defines World Order, Now Shifting Towards Multipolarity

World order is the actual or perceived distribution of power between and amongst states and other key actors, giving rise to a relatively stable pattern of relationships and behaviours.

Understanding power. Power is a complex concept, understood not just as capability (resources a state possesses) but also as a relationship (influence over others) and as structural (shaping the frameworks of interaction). The nature of power is also changing, with a shift towards "soft power" (attraction) alongside "hard power" (coercion).

From bipolarity to unipolarity. The Cold War was defined by bipolarity between the USA and USSR. Its end led to a period of US hegemony, where the United States was the sole superpower, shaping global norms and institutions.

Rise of multipolarity. US dominance is now being challenged by the rise of emerging powers, particularly China, but also India, Brazil, and Russia. This shift towards a multipolar world order is also influenced by the growing role of international organizations and non-state actors.

Future of order. The transition to multipolarity raises questions about future stability. Some predict increased conflict as states compete for influence, while others hope that a more even distribution of power will encourage multilateralism and cooperation.

9. War Remains a Reality, Evolving in Nature and Justification

War is merely a continuation of politics (or policy) by other means.

Causes of conflict. While specific wars have unique origins, underlying explanations for war include human nature (aggression), the internal characteristics of states (authoritarianism), and structural factors (anarchy, economic competition).

Changing face of war. Modern warfare differs from traditional interstate wars.

• "New" wars: Often civil wars, identity-based, asymmetrical, blurring civilian/military lines.
• Hybrid warfare: Combines conventional tactics with unconventional ones (e.g., cyberattacks, disinformation).
• Technological shifts: Drones, cyber capabilities, and precision weapons reshape combat.

Justifying violence. Debates persist about the morality of war.

• Realpolitik: War is a political act, justified by national interest, not morality.
• Just War Theory: War can be justified if it meets ethical criteria (just cause, legitimate authority, right intention, just conduct).
• Pacifism: All war is morally wrong, advocating non-violence.

10. Weapons of Mass Destruction Pose Unique Threats Amidst Proliferation

The unprecedented destructive potential of nuclear weapons explains why the issue of nuclear proliferation has been at the forefront of the international security agenda since 1945.

Defining WMD. Originally referring to devastating aerial bombing, WMD today primarily denotes nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons due to their potential for mass casualties and destruction.

Nuclear proliferation. The spread of nuclear weapons (horizontal and vertical) is driven by the security dilemma and the deterrent effect they offer.

• Cold War saw vertical proliferation (USA/USSR arms race).
• Post-Cold War sees horizontal proliferation (more states acquiring weapons).

Debating nuclear impact. Nuclear weapons are controversial. Some argue they promote peace through deterrence (MAD), while others see them as inherently destabilizing and increasing the risk of catastrophic war.

Controlling the spread. Efforts to control WMD proliferation include treaties (like the NPT and the Nuclear Ban Treaty) and international monitoring. However, enforcement is challenging, and concerns persist about "rogue states" and non-state actors acquiring these weapons.

11. Human Rights and Intervention Challenge State Sovereignty

Human rights have come to compete with state sovereignty as the dominant normative language of international affairs and human development.

Individual dignity. Human rights are universal entitlements based on being human, challenging the traditional state-centric view of international politics. They imply moral obligations that extend beyond national borders.

Protecting rights. An international human rights regime has developed, involving UN bodies, NGOs, and international law. However, states remain the primary human rights abusers, creating tension between human rights and state sovereignty.

Humanitarian intervention. The idea that states have a right or responsibility to intervene militarily in other states to protect populations from gross human rights violations (like genocide) gained prominence after the Cold War.

• Justified by human rights and just war principles.
• Controversial due to violations of sovereignty and mixed motives.
• Its association with the "war on terror" has led to its decline.

Contested universality. Critics argue that human rights are culturally biased (Eurocentric), philosophically unsound (relativism), or used as a tool for political or economic domination.

12. International Law Evolves Amidst Anarchy

International law is the law that governs states and other international actors.

Rules without a sovereign. Unlike domestic law, international law operates without a central legislative or enforcement authority. Its sources include treaties, customs, general principles, and legal scholarship.

Why states comply. Despite the lack of conventional enforcement, states often obey international law due to self-interest, reciprocity, fear of disorder or isolation, potential punishment, and identification with international norms.

From international to world law. International law is evolving from a state-centric system focused on interstate relations towards "world" or "supranational" law that recognizes individuals and groups as subjects and addresses issues of global justice.

• Development of international humanitarian law (laws of war, war crimes, crimes against humanity).
• Rise of international criminal tribunals and the International Criminal Court (ICC) to prosecute individuals for atrocities.

Contested legitimacy. Realists remain sceptical, viewing international law as limited by state interests. Critics also point to biases (Eurocentric, favoring powerful states) and challenges in enforcement, particularly for the ICC.

Last updated: May 12, 2025