Great World Religions

1. Islam's Core Beliefs Unite Diverse Practices

Although Muslims share certain core beliefs, the practices, interpretations, images, and realities of Islam vary across time and space.

Global religion. Islam, the second largest and fastest-growing world religion, boasts over 1.2 billion adherents across 56 countries, from North Africa to Southeast Asia, with significant minorities in Europe and the United States. This vast geographical spread contributes to a rich tapestry of cultural and religious practices, reflecting the diverse peoples, races, languages, ethnic groups, tribes, and cultures that embrace Islam. Despite this diversity, a set of core beliefs serves as a common denominator, uniting Muslims worldwide.

Monotheistic faith. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic faith tracing its ancestry to Abraham. Muslims believe in one God (Allah), the creator and sustainer of the universe, and adhere to the teachings of the Quran, which they believe is the literal word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. This shared belief in one God and the divine origin of the Quran forms the bedrock of Islamic faith, transcending cultural and geographical boundaries.

Radical extremists. The study of Islam today is often motivated by the threat that radical Islam—Muslim extremists and terrorists—have posed to their own societies and to the West. The actions of a minority of radical extremists often overshadow the peaceful practices of the majority of Muslims. Understanding the core beliefs of Islam is crucial to dispelling myths and stereotypes and fostering a more nuanced understanding of the faith.

2. The Five Pillars: A Foundation of Muslim Life

These pillars are the core beliefs that unite all Muslims across time and space and are the hallmarks that distinguish Islam from all other faiths.

Required observances. The Five Pillars of Islam are the declaration of faith (Shahada), prayer (Salat), almsgiving (Zakat), fasting during Ramadan (Sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). These pillars represent the core and common denominator that unite all Muslims and distinguish Islam from other religions. Following the Pillars of Islam involves a Muslim’s mind, body, time, energy, and wealth.

Declaration of faith. The first pillar, the Shahada, is the declaration that "there is no god but God [Allah] and Muhammad is the messenger of God." This proclamation affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and the belief that Muhammad is the final prophet. To become a Muslim, one need only make this simple proclamation or confession of faith.

Practical orientation. The remaining four pillars emphasize the practical orientation of Islam. Muslims pray five times a day, give alms to the poor, fast during Ramadan, and, if able, make the pilgrimage to Mecca. These practices reinforce a sense of God's presence and membership in a global community of believers. Meeting the obligations required by the pillars reinforces an ongoing sense of God’s existence and presence and reminds Muslims of their membership in a worldwide community of believers.

3. Muhammad: Prophet, Statesman, and Model

The history of Muhammad and the emergence of the Muslim community have served as a paradigm to be remembered and emulated, as well as a sign that God’s favor will be shown to those who carry out His will.

Living Quran. Muhammad (570–632 C.E.) is considered by Muslims to be both God’s human instrument in receiving and reporting His revelation and the model or ideal for all believers, what some have called the “living Quran.” He is revered as the last prophet in a line that includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims look to Muhammad's example for guidance in all aspects of life.

Religious and political leader. Muhammad was a multifaceted personality who served as the religious, political, and military leader of a community-state. He established the first Muslim community in Medina, where he served as prophet, political ruler, military commander, chief judge, and lawgiver. This community served as a model for later generations.

Social justice. Muhammad's message challenged the religious and political establishment of his time, calling for social justice for the poor and vulnerable. His teachings emphasized the importance of religious belief over tribal loyalty. The success of Muhammad and the Muslim community was seen as a sign of God’s favor to those who carry out His will.

4. The Quran: God's Word, Guidance for Humanity

Muslims believe that the Quran is the literal, eternal, uncreated Word of God sent down from heaven to the Prophet Muhammad as a guide for humankind (Q 2:185).

Final revelation. Muslims believe that the Quran is the literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad over a 22-year period. The Quran confirms the Torah and the New Testament (Gospel) as revelation from God, but revelation that became corrupted over time. Thus, the Quran was sent as a correction, rather than a nullification or abrogation, of the Torah and the Gospel.

Central to Muslim life. The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, providing guidance on all aspects of life, from personal conduct to social justice. It is believed to reflect and correct earlier revelations in the Torah and New Testament and to be the final revelation of God to humankind. The Quran is believed to refl ect and correct earlier revelations in the Torah and New Testament and to be the fi nal revelation of God to humankind.

Equality and tolerance. The Quran emphasizes the equality of men and women and promotes pluralism and tolerance. It states that "there is to be no compulsion in religion" (2:256) and recognizes Jews and Christians as People of the Book. The Quran frequently stresses pluralism and tolerance, that God has created not one but many nations and peoples.

5. Islamic Civilization: Faith, Politics, and Culture Intertwined

The original community-state founded in Medina established the example of Islam as both a faith and a political order.

Faith and power. The history of Islam demonstrates the extent to which religion is integrally related to politics and society. Faith, power, civilization, and culture are intertwined. The original community-state founded in Medina established the example of Islam as both a faith and a political order.

Golden Age. Within a century after Muhammad's death, Islam as a faith and as an Islamic empire stretched from North Africa to South Asia. Islamic civilization flourished under the Umayyad and Abbasid empires, making original contributions to art, architecture, mathematics, science, philosophy, law, and mysticism. Examining the history of Islamic civilization helps us to appreciate the remarkable achievements of its “Golden Age” and to understand the sources of sectarianism, religious extremism, and the confl ict between Islam and Christianity, epitomized by the Crusades.

Sectarianism and extremism. Islam split into two branches, a Sunni majority and Shii minority, over issues of leadership. These differing religious and political views led to different interpretations of history. Sectarianism and extremism in the Muslim empire were born with two civil wars following the succession of the fourth caliph, Ali; both were sparked by Ali’s failure to fi nd and punish the murderers of the third caliph, Uthman.

6. Islamic Law and Mysticism: Paths to Divine Will

Islamic law refl ects Islam’s emphasis on orthopraxy (“correct practice”), rather than orthodoxy (“correct belief”).

Orthopraxy over orthodoxy. Islamic law, the Shariah, reflects Islam's emphasis on orthopraxy ("correct practice") rather than orthodoxy ("correct belief"). It applies to both the private and public realms and is concerned with human interactions with God (worship) and with each other (social relations). Islamic law applies to both the private and public realms and is concerned with human interactions with God (worship) and with each other (social relations).

Shariah and fiqh. Islamic law springs from the basic meaning and requirement of Islam, submission to and realization of God’s will. Though they overlap, the distinction between Shariah and fi qh is critical to understanding the meaning and dynamic nature of Islamic law and its possibilities for reinterpretation and reform today. Shariah in the Quran and in Islam refers specifi cally to divine law, for God is the only lawgiver.

Personal spirituality. Sufi sm, or Islamic mysticism, emphasizes personal spirituality and devotion. It has played an important role in the spread of Islam through missionary activities. Sufi sm, as the “interior path,” has emphasized personal spirituality and devotion and has played an important role in the spread of Islam through missionary activities.

7. Revival and Reform: A Constant in Islamic History

A variety of religious sociopolitical movements arose throughout the Muslim world in response.

Internal disintegration. From the 17th to the 20th centuries, the Muslim world experienced both internal disintegration and upheaval and the external aggression of the European colonial era. A variety of religious sociopolitical movements arose throughout the Muslim world in response. The Islamic world experienced a major transition as the power, prosperity, and dynamic expansionism of imperial Islam gave way to political disintegration and social and moral decline, followed by the advent of European colonialism throughout much of the Muslim world.

Renewal and reform. Islam possesses a long history and tradition of religious revival and reform in response to perceived compromises in faith and practice. Islamic concepts of renewal ( tajdid) and reform ( islah) are based in the Quran and Sunnah, and both call for a return to these sources. Renewal and reform are carried out by practicing ijtihad, or “personal interpretation” of the Quran and Sunnah.

Islamic modernism. Islamic modernism of the 19th and 20th centuries was a response both to continued internal weaknesses and to the external political and religio-cultural threat of European colonialism. The result of Western imperialism for Muslims was a period of self-criticism and refl ection on the causes of decline. Secularists blamed an outmoded tradition in Islam and advocated the separation of religion and politics and the establishment of the Western model of modern nation-state building.

8. Contemporary Resurgence: Islam in Public and Private Life

In the last decades of the 20th century, the Muslim world experienced the impact of another revival or resurgence of Islam in personal and in public life.

Greater authenticity. In the last decades of the 20th century, a series of political events and economic realities led to the desire of many Muslims to achieve greater authenticity and self-defi nition through a revival of Islam. This revival was refl ected both in private life (greater mosque attendance and concern with Islamic dress and values) and in public life through political and social activism. In the last decades of the 20th century, a series of political events and economic realities led to the desire of many Muslims to achieve greater authenticity and self-defi nition through a revival of Islam.

Political and social activism. In the public sphere, new Islamic governments or republics have been established in Iran, Sudan, and Afghanistan. Rulers, political parties, and opposition movements have appealed to Islam. Mainstream Islamic activists head governments and serve in cabinets, in elected parliaments, and as senior offi cials of professional associations of doctors, lawyers, engineers, and professors.

Radical extremists. While reformist movements have worked within mainstream society for change, extremists have resorted to violence and terrorism to achieve their goals. At the same time, radical Islamic organizations have engaged in violence and terrorism to topple governments or to achieve related goals.

9. Islam at the Crossroads: Interpreting Faith in the Modern World

At the heart of this “struggle for the soul of Islam” between conservatives and reformers, mainstream Muslims and extremists, is the question of who should interpret Islam and how reform should be achieved.

Defining relevance. Like members of other faith communities, contemporary Muslims face the challenge of defi ning the role, meaning, and relevance of Islam in both private and public life. Often we focus on radicalism and extremism, but a deeper and more pervasive struggle exists. At the heart of this “struggle for the soul of Islam” between conservatives and reformers, mainstream Muslims and extremists, is the question of who should interpret Islam and how reform should be achieved.

Key issues. Its major issues include the relationship of religion to state and society, the role of Islamic law, the status of women and non-Muslims, the compatibility of Islam and democracy, and relations with the West. While the revolution occurring in contemporary Islam is often seen through the lens of explosive headline events, of radicalism and extremism, the real revolution is the quiet revolution in Islamic discourse and activism.

Four orientations. Four general Muslim orientations can be identifi ed. Secularists believe religion is a personal matter and should be excluded from politics and public life. Conservatives (most of the ulama and their followers) emphasize following taqlid (“past tradition”) and are wary of any change, which they regard as bida (“deviation”), the Christian equivalent of heresy.

10. Women in Islam: Navigating Change and Tradition

The status of women in Islam is a hotly contested issue, both in the Muslim world and in the West.

Dialectics of change. For several decades, women in Muslim societies have been part of the dialectics of change, an erratic, vacillating, and contradictory process that creates many anomalies and contradictions. Evidence of women’s status represents great diversity across the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries, women drive cars and ride motorcycles freely; hold professional positions in virtually every sector; serve as ambassadors, parliamentary members, judges; outnumber men at universities; and have the right to vote.

Contradictions. In others, they need a male’s permission to travel; cannot drive a car; are sexually segregated; must be completely covered in public; cannot vote; are restricted by “Islamic laws” that severely limit their rights in marriage, divorce, and inheritance; and face courts that condemn them to be stoned to death if found guilty of fornication or adultery. Such contradictions are also evident in the issue of veiling.

Empowerment. A new source of women’s empowerment today has become their active participation in the mosque and their use of scripture and religion to reclaim their rights in Muslim societies. In political affairs, women independently pledged their oath of allegiance ( bayah) to Muhammad, often without the knowledge or approval of male family members, and in many cases, distinguished women converted to Islam before the men in their families.

11. Islam in the West: Identity, Integration, and Coexistence

They, like religious minorities before them, face issues of faith and identity, integration and assimilation.

Immigrants and converts. Muslims in Europe and America are a combination of immigrants and indigenous converts. They represent a cross-section of national, ethnic, and racial backgrounds and socioeconomic classes. They, like religious minorities before them, face issues of faith and identity, integration and assimilation.

Challenges. Like many other immigrants of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds, Muslims have been challenged to defi ne their place in American and European society. Like Jewish law for Jews, Islamic law is central to a Muslim’s life, covering religious requirements, dietary regulations, and family law. Ironically, many of the minorities who preceded them and “made it in America” do not identify with Muslims and fail to see the similarities between their own past and Muslims’ current problems.

Coexistence. Muslims are now part of the fabric of American and European societies. In the United States, a host of national and international organizations have been created to monitor and promote Muslim interests. Obviously, coexistence of Muslims and non-Muslims is here to stay.

12. The Future of Islam: Dialogue, Reform, and Global Engagement

For Muslims, the 21st century will be a time not only for self-refl ection, self-criticism, and internal reform, both religiously and politically, but also a time for educating, engaging in dialogue with, and fi nding new ways in which to work with and within the West and global civilization.

Self-reflection and reform. For Muslims, the 21st century will be a time not only for self-refl ection, self-criticism, and internal reform, both religiously and politically, but also a time for educating, engaging in dialogue with, and fi nding new ways in which to work with and within the West and global civilization. In the 21st century, Islam remains the fastest growing religion in many parts of the world and a signifi cant factor in international politics.

Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition. A Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition actually exists. As we have seen, despite signifi cant differences, Islam shares many important similarities and linkages with the worldviews of Judaism and Christianity, from its belief in one God and acceptance of biblical prophets and revelation to moral responsibility and accountability.

Global engagement. The debate over the hijab (“headscarf”) rages from Muslim Turkey and Tunisia to secular France and America. Critics continue to see the hijab as a symbol of oppression and subservience to a male-dominated culture. Yet increasing numbers of women see the hijab as a symbol of freedom, as well as a bridge between their religious tradition and the realities of modern life.

Last updated: March 29, 2025