History of the Philippines

1. Ancient Islands: Diverse Societies and Trade Networks

The inscription—the oldest known document of pre-Hispanic times in the Philippine archipelago—is vital to understanding how people in the islands, at least in certain parts, lived and what kind of society or societies they might have constructed.

Pre-colonial life. Before 1521, the archipelago was home to diverse societies, often organized into small, kinship-based units called barangays, typically led by a datu. These communities, often located near water, engaged in agriculture, fishing, and various crafts like shipbuilding and metallurgy. Social structures were hierarchical but fluid, with distinct classes including a ruling elite, freemen, and various types of slaves, whose status could change.

Vibrant trade. The islands were part of extensive Southeast Asian trade networks, connecting with regions from the Persian Gulf to China. Ports like Butuan and Manila were active centers, trading local products like gold, beeswax, and abaca for foreign goods such as porcelain, silk, and brass. This trade facilitated cultural exchange, introducing influences like Sanskrit and Arabic scripts and words, and contributing to the spread of Islam in the south.

Early Islam. Islam arrived in the southern Philippines by the late 14th century, predating Christianity by over a century. It led to the formation of more centralized political entities like the Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao. These sultanates, with their developed social organization and external ties, offered significant resistance to later Spanish attempts at colonization, unlike the more fragmented communities elsewhere in the archipelago.

2. Spanish Arrival: Conquest, Cross, and Exploitation

The colonial apparatus set in place was intended primarily to facilitate the exploitation, rather than the progressive development, of the islands for the benefit of the Crown and, in the process, enrich those who had claimed and ruled the territory on behalf of the monarch.

Magellan's voyage. Ferdinand Magellan's expedition reached the islands in 1521, marking the first European contact. After initial interactions and conversions in Cebu, Magellan was killed in a skirmish with local chief Lapu-Lapu in Mactan. Subsequent Spanish expeditions faced difficulties, but Miguel López de Legazpi's arrival in 1565 led to the successful establishment of a permanent Spanish presence, eventually making Manila the colonial capital in 1571.

Colonial structure. Spanish rule introduced a centralized bureaucratic state, the concept of private property, and Christianity. The encomienda system was implemented, granting Spanish encomenderos the right to collect tribute and demand labor from native populations in exchange for Christian instruction and protection. This system, however, was rife with abuse and exploitation, leading to impoverishment and resentment among the indigenous people.

Forced labor and tribute. Natives were subjected to tribute payments and mandatory labor (polos y servicios) for public works, shipbuilding, and military service. This disrupted traditional livelihoods and social structures. The Spanish also implemented a resettlement policy (reducción), forcing scattered communities to live in centralized towns (pueblos) around a church and town hall, making administration, tribute collection, and Christianization easier.

3. Colonial Rule: Friar Power and Local Resistance

To speak of the Church in the Philippines during the Spanish regime was thus to speak of the Spanish clergy and the Spanish empire, each serving the ends of the other.

Friars' dominance. The Catholic Church, particularly the friar orders (Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Recollects), became immensely powerful. As agents of both the Crown (Patronato Real) and the Vatican, friars often held more influence than civil officials at the local level, controlling education, land, and even acting as de facto administrators. Their wealth and abuses grew over time, leading to conflicts with civil authorities and resentment from the native population.

Early revolts. Spanish rule was met with numerous local revolts throughout the archipelago, often sparked by:

• Opposition to tribute and forced labor
• Resistance to Christianization and desire to return to traditional beliefs
• Abuses by encomenderos and friars
• Disputes over land

These uprisings, like those led by Dagohoy in Bohol (lasting 85 years) and Silang in Ilocos, were generally localized and lacked coordination, allowing the Spanish to suppress them, often with the help of native allies.

Moro resistance. The Muslim sultanates in Mindanao and Sulu were never fully conquered by the Spanish. Their more centralized political organization, martial traditions, and external ties with other Muslim states enabled them to resist Spanish military campaigns and raids on Christian settlements for centuries. This prolonged conflict shaped the identity of the Moro people and created a lasting divide with the Christian majority.

4. Emergence of Filipino Identity: Ilustrados and Propaganda

By appropriating the term meant to put them in their place, Los Indios Bravos were signaling the Spanish their intent to take charge of their own destiny.

Rise of the Ilustrados. The opening of the Philippines to international trade in the 19th century led to the rise of a native and mestizo middle class. Their sons, the ilustrados ("enlightened ones"), could afford education in Manila and Europe, where they were exposed to liberal and nationalist ideas. Figures like José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano López Jaena formed the core of this intellectual elite.

The Propaganda Movement. Based primarily in Spain, the ilustrados launched the Propaganda Movement, advocating for reforms within the Spanish system. Their goals included:

• Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
• Equal rights for Filipinos
• Secularization of parishes (replacing Spanish friars with native priests)
• Freedom of speech and assembly

They used publications like La Solidaridad to expose colonial abuses and argue for assimilation, not outright independence.

Gomburza martyrdom. The execution of three secular priests, Gómez, Burgos, and Zamora (Gomburza), in 1872, falsely accused of sedition after the Cavite Mutiny, was a turning point. This injustice galvanized the ilustrados and the wider population, transforming the secularization issue into a nationalist cause and planting the seeds for a broader anti-colonial movement. The term "Filipino," once exclusive to Creoles, began to encompass all natives and mestizos.

5. Revolution Against Spain: Birth of a Nation

Without 1872 there would now be neither Plaridel nor Jaena nor Sancianco, nor the valiant and generous Filipino expatriates in Europe.

From reform to revolution. The failure of the Propaganda Movement to achieve meaningful reforms led to the rise of a more radical, mass-based movement. Andrés Bonifacio, a working-class leader influenced by Rizal's novels and the ideals of the French Revolution, founded the Kataastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK) in 1892. The Katipunan aimed for complete independence from Spain through armed revolution.

The Cry of Balintawak. The Katipunan was discovered in August 1896, forcing Bonifacio to launch the revolution prematurely. The tearing of cedulas (tax certificates) at Pugad Lawin (or Balintawak) symbolized the break with Spain. The revolution quickly spread from the Tagalog provinces, met by brutal Spanish repression, including the execution of Rizal in December 1896, which further fueled the nationalist cause.

Internal conflict. Leadership struggles emerged within the revolutionary ranks, particularly between Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo, a successful military leader from Cavite. At the Tejeros Convention in 1897, Aguinaldo replaced Bonifacio as the leader of the revolutionary government. Bonifacio's subsequent refusal to recognize the new leadership led to his arrest and execution, consolidating the revolution's leadership under the Cavite elite.

6. American Takeover: War, Benevolent Assimilation, and Control

It far surpassed in ferocity, cost, and duration the Spanish-American War, which lasted all of four months, though it is this war that is remembered while its more costly 1899 sequel is not.

Spanish-American War. The United States declared war on Spain in April 1898, ostensibly to liberate Cuba. Commodore George Dewey's victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in May effectively ended Spanish naval power in the Pacific. Filipino revolutionaries, led by Aguinaldo, saw the US as an ally and intensified their fight against Spain, declaring independence in June 1898 and besieging Manila.

Betrayal and conflict. The US, however, had imperial ambitions. After a mock battle, Spanish forces surrendered Manila to the Americans in August 1898, excluding Filipino troops. The Treaty of Paris in December 1898 formally ceded the Philippines from Spain to the US for $20 million. Hostilities between Filipino and American forces erupted in February 1899, just before the US Senate ratified the treaty, marking the start of the Philippine-American War.

Brutal war and pacification. The war was brutal, characterized by:

• Disproportionate Filipino casualties
• Use of torture (like the "water cure") by US troops
• Scorched-earth tactics and reconcentration camps (like those under Gen. Bell)
• Racial prejudice against Filipinos ("Gugus")

Despite fierce resistance and guerrilla warfare, the US military, with superior firepower and resources, gradually gained control. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, and the US declared the "insurrection" over in 1902, though resistance continued for years.

7. American Era: Education, Economy, and Commonwealth

Education was the perfect tool for colonial administrators, as it embodied the tutelary basis of colonialism.

Benevolent Assimilation. The US framed its rule as "Benevolent Assimilation," aiming to "uplift, civilize, and Christianize" Filipinos and prepare them for self-government. Mass public education in English was a key tool, implemented early on by American teachers (Thomasites). This fostered a new generation of English-speaking Filipinos and promoted American culture and values.

Economic integration. The US integrated the Philippine economy into its own, primarily as a source of raw materials and a market for American goods. Free trade policies benefited American businesses and Filipino elites involved in export crops (sugar, coconut, abaca), but hindered local industrialization. The "Parity Rights" granted to Americans after WWII further solidified US economic dominance.

Path to Commonwealth. Filipino political leaders, like Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, campaigned for independence through legislative means. The Philippine Assembly (1907) and later the bicameral legislature under the Jones Law (1916) provided platforms for this advocacy. The Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) finally set a timetable, establishing the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935 as a 10-year transition period to full independence.

8. World War II: Japanese Occupation and US Return

A puppet government was installed, with the formation first of the Philippine Executive Commission, made up of politically well-placed Filipinos, among them Chief Justice of the Supreme Court José P. Laurel, later to become the nominal president of the country.

Japanese invasion. Japan, seeking to build its "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere," attacked the Philippines hours after Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Despite General Douglas MacArthur's pre-war assurances, the defense was inadequate. US and Filipino forces were defeated in Bataan and Corregidor in early 1942, leading to the infamous Bataan Death March and the complete Japanese occupation of the archipelago.

Occupation and collaboration. The Japanese installed a puppet government, initially the Philippine Executive Commission and later the Second Philippine Republic (1943), headed by José P. Laurel. Many pre-war Filipino elites collaborated with the Japanese, seeking to preserve their power and wealth. The Japanese promoted Asianism and Nippongo, but their brutality and economic exploitation alienated the population.

Resistance and Liberation. Filipino guerrilla groups, including the Communist-led Hukbalahap, resisted the Japanese occupation. General MacArthur famously vowed, "I shall return," and did so in October 1944, landing in Leyte. The subsequent campaign to liberate the Philippines was long and devastating, particularly the Battle of Manila in 1945, which left the city in ruins and resulted in massive civilian casualties.

9. Post-War Republic: Neo-Colonialism and Insurgency

Having its own flag fly over the nation did not automatically mean the United States had relinquished control over these Southeast Asian islands, only that the means of control had become less overt.

Formal independence. The Philippines gained formal independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, with Manuel Roxas as the first president of the Republic. However, this independence came with significant strings attached, including economic agreements (Bell Trade Act/Parity Rights) and military bases leases (MBA) that ensured continued US influence and control over the country's economy and security.

Huk rebellion. The post-war period saw the resurgence of the Hukbalahap, now the Hukbong Magpalaya ng Bayan (HMB), fueled by unresolved land issues and resentment against elites who collaborated with the Japanese and were now back in power. The Huk rebellion, concentrated in Central Luzon, became a major challenge to the government and was viewed by the US through the lens of the emerging Cold War as a Communist threat.

US intervention. The US provided significant military aid and advisory support (JUSMAG) to the Philippine government to suppress the Huk insurgency. CIA operative Edward Lansdale played a key role in counterinsurgency strategy and in promoting Ramón Magsaysay, who successfully combined military action with populist reforms to weaken the Huks. Magsaysay's presidency solidified the Philippines' alignment with the US in the Cold War.

10. The Marcos Dictatorship: Authoritarianism and Cronyism

Marcos proved to be the NPA’s most effective recruiter, albeit unwittingly.

Rise of Marcos. Ferdinand E. Marcos, a decorated (though later disputed) WWII veteran and shrewd politician, was elected president in 1965 and reelected in 1969, the first to win a second term. Facing rising student activism, labor unrest, and a growing Communist insurgency (New People's Army, NPA), Marcos declared martial law in September 1972, citing the need to save the republic from collapse and build a "New Society."

Constitutional authoritarianism. Martial law allowed Marcos to rule by decree, suppress dissent, and dismantle democratic institutions. He replaced the 1935 Constitution with a new one (1973) that legitimized his authoritarian rule and allowed him to stay in power beyond his term limit. Civil liberties were curtailed, media was controlled, and human rights abuses, including torture and extrajudicial killings ("salvaging"), became widespread.

Crony capitalism. Marcos replaced the old oligarchy with a new one composed of his family and close associates ("cronies"). These cronies gained control over key sectors of the economy (sugar, coconut, banking, infrastructure) through monopolies, preferential treatment, and misuse of public funds. This crony capitalism led to massive corruption, increased foreign debt, exacerbated economic inequality, and fueled resentment that strengthened the NPA and other opposition groups.

11. People Power: Revolution and Restoration

People Power, as it came to be known, was nothing short of a fairy tale come true.

Aquino assassination. The assassination of opposition leader Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. upon his return from exile in August 1983 galvanized the anti-Marcos movement. His death, widely blamed on the Marcos regime, sparked massive protests from across society, including the middle and upper classes, eroding the dictator's support and international standing.

Snap elections. Facing mounting pressure and a collapsing economy, Marcos called for snap presidential elections in February 1986. Ninoy's widow, Corazon "Cory" Aquino, emerged as the opposition candidate. The elections were marred by widespread fraud and violence, but the quick count by the citizens' watchdog NAMFREL showed Aquino winning, contradicting the government's official tally.

EDSA Revolution. The fraudulent election results led to a military rebellion led by Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and AFP Vice Chief of Staff Fidel V. Ramos. When Marcos ordered their arrest, they holed up in military camps along EDSA avenue. Cardinal Jaime Sin and Radio Veritas called on the public to protect the rebels, leading to millions of unarmed civilians forming human shields. This nonviolent "People Power" uprising forced the Marcoses to flee the country on February 25, 1986, ending the dictatorship.

12. Modern Philippines: Corruption, Conflict, and Resilience

The illness that vitiates the body politic above all is that of corruption.

Post-Marcos democracy. Corazon Aquino became president, restoring democratic institutions, including a new constitution (1987) and a bicameral legislature. Civil liberties were reinstated, and efforts were made to recover Marcos's ill-gotten wealth. However, her government faced numerous coup attempts from military hardliners and struggled with economic challenges and persistent insurgencies.

Continuing challenges. The Philippines continues to grapple with deep-seated issues:

• Endemic corruption across government levels
• High poverty rates and economic inequality
• Ongoing insurgencies (NPA, MILF, ASG)

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Last updated: June 8, 2025