How to do Discourse Analysis

1. Discourse Analysis: Language in Action

Discourse analysis is the study of language-in-use. Better put, it is the study of language at use in the world, not just to say things, but to do things.

Beyond conveying information. Discourse analysis goes beyond simply studying grammar or vocabulary in isolation. It examines how people use language in real-world situations to accomplish various goals. Language is a tool for action, not just a container for ideas.

Doing things with words. Every utterance performs an action. While informing is one action, we also use language to promise, request, insult, encourage, or build relationships. These actions are often tied to specific contexts and can happen simultaneously.

Building and designing. We actively build and design our language choices (words, grammar, style) to achieve these actions and shape how others understand us. This process is like building a car – we select parts (words, phrases) and assemble them according to rules (grammar) to create something functional (meaning and action).

2. Meaning is Situated and Requires Filling In

LISTENER’S WORK = Consider what the speaker has said and the context in which it has been said, and, on that basis, make the assumptions and draw the inferences that will make what the speaker has said clear and complete.

Meaning is not inherent. Words and sentences don't have fixed meanings like dictionary definitions. Their specific meaning, or "situated meaning," is constructed in the moment based on the context of communication. Listeners must actively participate in making meaning.

Filling in the gaps. Speakers always leave things unsaid, assuming listeners will "fill in" the necessary information from the context. This context includes:

• Physical setting and objects
• People present, their actions, and gestures
• Previous conversation
• Shared knowledge, including cultural understanding

Active interpretation. Understanding is an active process of making assumptions and drawing inferences. For example, "The coffee spilled, get the mop" means liquid coffee, while "The coffee spilled, get the broom" means coffee beans, based on the tool mentioned.

3. Context is Dynamic and Shaped by Language

When we speak we build and design what we have to say to fit the context in which we are communicating. But, at the same time, how we speak—what we say and how we say it—helps create that very context.

A two-way street. Context isn't just a static background; it's constantly being shaped by the language used within it. Our words and actions influence how others perceive and define the situation we're in. This is the "reflexive" property of context.

Creating reality. By speaking and acting in certain ways, we help to build and maintain social realities like:

• Committee meetings
• Classrooms
• Friendships
• Professional roles

Reproducing or transforming. Our language choices can either reproduce existing contexts and social norms or, in some cases, challenge and transform them. Even routine interactions contribute to the ongoing construction of our social world.

4. Grammar: A Toolkit for Building Meaning

A better view of language than the ‘‘conveyor belt’’ and ‘‘container’’ view of language is what I will call a ‘‘building and designing view.’’

Grammar as building rules. Instead of seeing grammar as just rules for "correctness," view it as a set of tools and rules for building structures (phrases, clauses, sentences) that carry meaning. We combine smaller units (words) into larger ones following these rules.

Strategic design choices. Every time we speak, we make design choices about:

• What structures to build (e.g., a noun phrase vs. a clause)
• What words to use
• What optional elements to include or exclude
• How to combine words for style and effect

Meaningful variations. Different design choices create different meanings and nuances. For example, saying "The child grew" (process) is different from "the child's growth" (abstract thing), allowing for different subsequent constructions like "The child's growth is within normal variation."

5. Language Builds Our Social World

We use language to build and destroy things in the world, things like our academic discipline, our church membership, our ethnic affiliation, or our marriage.

Seven building tasks. Beyond conveying information, language is used to actively construct seven fundamental aspects of our social reality. These are the "seven building tasks":

• Significance: Making things important or trivial.
• Activities: Enacting socially recognized practices (e.g., lecturing, gaming).
• Identities: Being recognized as a certain kind of person (e.g., a doctor, a student).
• Relationships: Building connections with others (e.g., formal, intimate).
• Politics: Distributing social goods (e.g., respect, blame, status).
• Connections: Linking ideas, people, or events as relevant or irrelevant.
• Sign Systems & Knowledge: Privileging certain languages or ways of knowing.

Simultaneous construction. Any single utterance or interaction can be engaged in multiple building tasks at once. For example, a teacher's language might simultaneously build their identity as an authority figure, enact the activity of teaching, and distribute social goods like praise or criticism.

Working with non-language. Language rarely builds alone; it works in tandem with actions, objects, tools, and the environment. A doctor's language builds their identity, but so does their white coat, stethoscope, and the examination room.

6. Social Languages Enact Identities

Social languages are styles or varieties of a language (or a mixture of languages) that enact and are associated with a particular social identity.

Speaking as a "who". We don't just speak "English"; we speak specific "social languages" that signal who we are being in a particular context. These are distinct styles tied to social groups and identities (e.g., the language of lawyers, gamers, or informal family talk).

Grammar 1 + Grammar 2. Each social language has its own "grammar 1" (traditional rules for words/structures) and, more importantly, a "grammar 2" – the rules for how grammar 1 features pattern together to signal a specific identity and activity. For example:

• Informal words + specific sentence structures + intonation = informal friend identity
• Technical terms + nominalizations + passive voice = academic/specialist identity

Heteroglossia. Communication often involves mixing or switching between different social languages, creating a "double-voiced" or "heteroglossic" text. This reflects the multiple identities and contexts at play.

7. Figured Worlds: Our Mental Models

A socially and culturally constructed realm of interpretation in which particular characters and actors are recognized, significance is assigned to certain acts, and particular outcomes are valued over others.

Simplified reality. Figured worlds are shared, simplified "typical stories" or models that social and cultural groups use to make sense of the world. They populate these worlds with typical characters, actions, and values, allowing us to navigate life without overthinking everything.

Shaping understanding. We interpret language and situations based on the figured worlds we assume are relevant. For example, calling the Pope a "bachelor" feels odd because he doesn't fit the typical story associated with the word "bachelor" (an unmarried man open to marriage).

Cultural variation. Figured worlds differ across social and cultural groups, reflecting different experiences and values. A child's defiant behavior might be seen as "willfulness" (needs discipline) in one figured world or "autonomy" (needs encouragement) in another.

8. Discourses (Big D): Being a Kind of Person

A Discourse with a capital ‘‘D’’... is composed of distinctive ways of speaking/listening and often, too, distinctive ways of writing/reading. These distinctive ways of speaking/listening and/or reading/writing are coupled with distinctive ways of acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, dressing, thinking, and believing.

More than just language. Being recognized as a certain "kind of person" (a "who") involves integrating language ("little d" discourse) with non-linguistic elements. A "Big D" Discourse is a way of being-in-the-world that combines:

• Social languages
• Actions and interactions
• Beliefs and values
• Dress and appearance
• Use of objects, tools, and technologies
• Coordination with other people and environments

Enacting identities. Discourses are about enacting specific, socially recognizable identities like "doctor," "gamer," "student," or "gang member
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Last updated: July 6, 2025