Impounded

1. Pearl Harbor's impact led to the unjust internment of Japanese Americans.

Pearl Harbor, she explained, changed all “our plans,” and “little by little our home was broken up and all the fancy dreams we planned for you had to be altered.”

Aftermath of Pearl Harbor. The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, triggered widespread fear and suspicion, particularly towards Japanese Americans. This event served as the catalyst for the mass internment, despite the fact that two-thirds of those affected were U.S. citizens. The attack created an environment of hysteria and prejudice, leading to the violation of constitutional rights and freedoms.

Executive Order 9066. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 in February 1942, granting the military the authority to designate areas from which "any and all persons may be excluded." This order paved the way for the forced removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans, regardless of their citizenship status. The order was justified under the guise of "military necessity," despite a lack of evidence supporting claims of disloyalty or espionage.

Disproportionate impact. The internment disproportionately affected Japanese Americans, disrupting their lives, careers, and communities. Families were uprooted from their homes, businesses were shuttered, and futures were placed on hold. The internment stands as a stark reminder of the dangers of wartime hysteria and the fragility of civil liberties.

2. Racism and economic anxieties fueled anti-Japanese sentiment.

Such exaggerations, of course, matched the most lurid “yellow peril” fantasies being churned out for the public by journalists, writers, and filmmakers of the time with little basis in fact.

Historical context. Anti-Japanese sentiment had been brewing in the United States for decades, fueled by racist stereotypes and economic anxieties. Japanese immigrants were often seen as a threat to white workers, particularly in California, where they competed for jobs in agriculture and other industries. This pre-existing prejudice made it easier to scapegoat Japanese Americans after Pearl Harbor.

"Yellow Peril" propaganda. The "Yellow Peril" narrative, which portrayed Asians as a threat to Western civilization, gained traction in the early 20th century. This propaganda fueled fears of a Japanese invasion and contributed to the perception of Japanese Americans as a disloyal and dangerous population. Media outlets played a significant role in amplifying these fears, further stoking anti-Japanese sentiment.

Economic motivations. Some historians argue that economic factors also played a role in the internment. The removal of Japanese American farmers and business owners created opportunities for white Americans to acquire their land and assets. This economic incentive may have contributed to the support for the internment among certain segments of the population.

3. Families faced forced removal, dispossession, and dehumanization.

We were herded onto the train just like cattle and swine,” recalled Misuyo Nakamura.

Eviction notices. Families were given short notice to vacate their homes and businesses, often with only a few days to settle their affairs. This created chaos and panic, as people struggled to sell their possessions at drastically reduced prices or entrust them to others. The forced removal was a traumatic experience that left many feeling disoriented and helpless.

Limited belongings. Evacuees were allowed to take only what they could carry, forcing them to leave behind most of their belongings, including family heirlooms, personal documents, and essential household items. This dispossession was a profound loss that further stripped away their sense of identity and security. The army authorized only bedding, linens, toilet articles, extra clothing, enamel plates and eating utensils.

Dehumanizing treatment. The process of registration and removal was often dehumanizing, with families being assigned numbers, tagged like animals, and herded onto buses and trains. This treatment reinforced the perception of Japanese Americans as a suspect and undesirable population, further eroding their dignity and self-worth.

4. Assembly centers offered inadequate living conditions and loss of dignity.

We walked in and dropped our things inside the entrance,” remembered Okubo. “The place was in semidarkness; light barely came through the dirty window on either side of the entrance. . . . The rear room had housed the horse and the front room the fodder. Both rooms showed signs of a hurried whitewashing. Spider webs, horse hair, and hay had been whitewashed with the walls. Huge spikes and nails stuck out all over the walls. A two-inch layer of dust covered the floor. ...”

Makeshift facilities. Assembly centers were often located in makeshift facilities, such as fairgrounds and racetracks, that were ill-equipped to house large numbers of people. Living quarters were cramped and unsanitary, with families often crammed into horse stalls or hastily constructed barracks. The lack of privacy and comfort added to the stress and hardship of internment.

Loss of privacy. The assembly centers offered little to no privacy, with communal toilets, showers, and dining halls. This lack of personal space was particularly difficult for families, who struggled to maintain a sense of normalcy and intimacy in the face of constant surveillance and scrutiny. The absence of partitions in the toilets led to widespread constipation.

Poor food and sanitation. Food was often of poor quality and served in unappetizing combinations, leaving many feeling hungry and dissatisfied. Sanitation was also a major concern, with limited access to clean water and inadequate waste disposal facilities. These conditions contributed to the spread of disease and further undermined the health and well-being of internees.

5. Concentration camps further stripped away freedom and identity.

When we got to Manzanar,” recalled Yuri Tateishi, “it was getting dark and we were given numbers first. We went to the mess hall, and I remember the first meal we were given in those tin plates and tin cups. It was canned wieners and canned spinach. It was all the food we had, and then after finishing that we were taken to our barracks. It was dark and trenches were here and there. You’d fall in and get up and finally got to the barracks. The floors were boarded, but they were about a quarter to a half inch apart, and the next morning you could see the ground below.”

Remote locations. Concentration camps were located in remote and desolate areas, often in deserts or swamps, that were far from civilization. This isolation reinforced the sense of confinement and made it difficult for internees to maintain contact with the outside world. The hostile environment added to the physical and psychological hardship of internment.

Barbed wire and guard towers. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire fences and patrolled by armed guards, creating a prison-like atmosphere. Internees were subjected to strict rules and regulations, and any violation could result in punishment. The constant surveillance and lack of freedom further eroded their sense of dignity and self-worth.

Loss of identity. The internment stripped away many aspects of Japanese American identity, including their homes, businesses, and communities. Internees were forced to conform to a new set of rules and expectations, and their cultural traditions were often suppressed. This loss of identity was a profound blow that left many feeling alienated and disconnected from their past.

6. Despite hardship, internees displayed resilience and community.

In some camps,” wrote an observer, “hardly a stick or stone was available; nevertheless, the note of beauty had to be achieved, and was achieved, through the use of strings and vines. Morning-glories, pumpkin vines and gourds transformed hundreds of barren entrances into bowers of enchantment.”

Gardens and landscaping. Despite the harsh conditions, internees created gardens and landscaped their surroundings, transforming the barren camps into places of beauty and tranquility. These gardens provided a source of solace and allowed internees to express their creativity and connection to nature. The act of creating beauty in the face of adversity was a powerful act of resistance.

Arts and crafts. Internees engaged in a variety of arts and crafts, including woodworking, painting, and sewing, to express themselves and preserve their cultural traditions. These activities provided a sense of purpose and allowed them to maintain their skills and talents. The arts became a form of self-expression and a way to cope with the trauma of internment.

Community building. Internees formed strong communities within the camps, supporting each other and working together to improve their living conditions. They organized schools, churches, and social clubs, creating a sense of normalcy and belonging in the midst of chaos. This community spirit was essential for their survival and resilience.

7. Nisei soldiers fought valiantly, challenging prejudice through service.

You fought for the free nations of the world . . . you fought not only the enemy, you fought prejudice—and you won.

Valor in combat. Despite the injustices they faced at home, many Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans) volunteered to serve in the U.S. military during World War II. They fought with extraordinary valor and distinction, earning numerous awards and citations for their bravery. Their service challenged the prevailing stereotypes about Japanese Americans and demonstrated their loyalty to the United States.

100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team. The 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, composed primarily of Nisei soldiers, became two of the most decorated units in U.S. military history. They fought in some of the most difficult and dangerous battles of the war, suffering heavy casualties but never losing their resolve. Their sacrifices helped to pave the way for greater acceptance and equality for Japanese Americans.

Fighting prejudice. Nisei soldiers not only fought against the enemy abroad but also against prejudice at home. They faced discrimination and suspicion from some of their fellow soldiers and from the American public. However, their courage and dedication gradually won over many skeptics and helped to change attitudes towards Japanese Americans.

8. Injustices persisted even after the war, including delayed closure and "repatriation."

And Japanese Americans remained in the concentration and internment camps long after Japan ceased to pose an invasion threat.

Delayed closure. Even after the war ended in August 1945, the U.S. government was slow to close the concentration camps. Thousands of Japanese Americans remained incarcerated for months, waiting for the opportunity to return to their homes and rebuild their lives. This delay added to the hardship and frustration of internment.

"Repatriation" efforts. The government pursued the "repatriation" of Japanese Americans to Japan, even after the war's end. Some Japanese Americans, disillusioned by their experiences in the United States, chose to renounce their citizenship and return to Japan. However, many others were pressured or coerced into leaving, despite their desire to remain in the country they called home.

Lingering discrimination. Even after their release from the camps, Japanese Americans faced discrimination and prejudice in housing, employment, and other areas of life. Many struggled to rebuild their businesses and communities, and some never fully recovered from the trauma of internment. The scars of internment lingered long after the camps were closed.

9. Redress and reparations sought to acknowledge and repair the harm.

This government can never repay all the people who suffered. But, this should not be an excuse for token apologies. I hope this country will never forget what happened,” Kurihara concluded, “and do what it can to make sure that future generations will never forget.”

Civil Liberties Act of 1988. In 1988, the U.S. Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act, which formally apologized for the internment and provided financial compensation to surviving internees. The act acknowledged the injustice of the internment and sought to repair some of the harm caused by the government's actions. The act issued presidential pardons for those who had resisted the eviction and detention orders.

Financial compensation. The Civil Liberties Act provided $20,000 in compensation to each surviving internee, as well as funding for community education and research. While the money could not fully compensate for the losses suffered, it was a symbolic gesture of recognition and reconciliation. The act also provided recommendations that government agencies restore to Japanese American employees lost status or entitlements.

Educational efforts. The Civil Liberties Act also established a community fund to educate the American public about the internment and its lessons. This educational effort aimed to prevent similar injustices from happening in the future by promoting understanding and tolerance. The act's sponsors intended, through redress and education, to prevent racism from ever again justifying government infringements of civil liberties.

10. Lessons from the internment remain relevant in contemporary society.

It is wrong to say ‘it can’t happen again,’” Uno predicted.

U.S.A. Patriot Act. The passage of the U.S.A. Patriot Act in 2001, following the September 11th attacks, raised concerns about the potential for similar abuses of civil liberties. The act expanded government surveillance powers and allowed for the detention of suspected terrorists without due process. Critics argued that the act could be used to target minority groups and suppress dissent.

Racial and religious profiling. The internment serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of racial and religious profiling. The targeting of Japanese Americans based solely on their ethnicity led to the violation of their rights and the destruction of their communities. The internment reminds us that it is essential to protect the rights of all individuals, regardless of their background or beliefs.

Importance of vigilance. The lessons of the internment remain relevant today, as we continue to grapple with issues of national security, civil liberties, and social justice. It is essential to remain vigilant against prejudice and discrimination and to defend the rights of all members of society. The internment reminds us that democracy is fragile and must be constantly defended.

Last updated: March 29, 2025