India

1. Ancient Roots: The Enigmatic Harappan Civilization (c3000-1700 BC)

A great civilisation was lost to memory.

Lost and found. India's earliest known civilization, the Harappan (or Indus Valley), flourished from around 3000 to 1700 BC, contemporary with Egypt and Mesopotamia. Discovered only in the 1920s at sites like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, it revealed a sophisticated urban culture.

Planned cities. Harappan cities were remarkably uniform and well-planned, featuring:

• Standardized bricks and weights
• Grid-like street layouts
• Advanced drainage and sanitation systems
• Elevated "citadel" areas

Mysteries remain. Despite extensive archaeological finds (seals, pottery, tools, some sculpture), the Harappan script remains undeciphered. This means we lack written records from the people themselves, leaving their language, religion, and political structure largely unknown. Their decline after 2000 BC is also debated, possibly linked to floods or environmental changes.

2. Vedic Age: The Rise of Aryan Culture and Texts (c1700-520 BC)

India’s history starts with the apparently irreconcilable.

Two worlds. While the Harappan civilization faded, a distinct culture associated with the Vedas and the Sanskrit language emerged in northern India. Known as the Aryans (arya), their origins and relationship to the Harappans are debated, with no clear archaeological link.

Pastoral life. Early Vedic society (c1700-900 BC), as depicted in the Rig Veda, was primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic, valuing cattle and horses. Their literature, initially oral, focused on elaborate sacrificial rituals and hymns to nature deities.

• Key texts: Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanisads
• Key language: Sanskrit
• Key social unit: Jana (clan)

Eastward shift. Over centuries (c900-520 BC), Aryan culture spread eastward into the Gangetic plain, adopting agriculture and a more settled life. This period, reflected in the epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, saw the emergence of:

• Larger settlements (pur)
• Early notions of kingship and social hierarchy (varna/caste)
• Conflicts over land and resources

3. Emergence of States and New Philosophies (c520-320 BC)

Out of the myth-smoke, a sparsely featured but genuinely historical landscape is briefly revealed.

New sources. Around 500 BC, more reliable historical information emerges, partly thanks to the rise of new religious movements and external contacts. The Achaemenid Persian empire under Darius I conquered parts of the Indus region (Hindu) around 520 BC, providing the first external historical reference to "India".

Second urbanization. This period saw the growth of cities and states (mahajanapadas) in the Gangetic plain, fueled by:

• Increased agricultural surplus (rice cultivation, iron tools)
• Growth of crafts and trade (first coinage)
• Development of administrative structures

Religious ferment. Alongside the evolving Vedic traditions, new heterodox movements like Buddhism and Jainism gained prominence.

• Founders: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), Mahavira Nataputta
• Appeal: Offered alternative paths to salvation, often critical of Vedic ritual and brahmanical authority
• Support: Attracted followers from rising merchant and artisan classes

4. India's First Great Empire: The Mauryas and Ashoka (c320-200 BC)

An ancient and immensely distinguished civilisation would thus be revealed in multi-dimensional detail.

Chandragupta Maurya. Capitalizing on the political fragmentation and perhaps inspired by Alexander the Great's brief incursion (327-325 BC), Chandragupta Maurya (c320-297 BC) overthrew the Nanda dynasty in Magadha (Bihar) and founded the first large-scale empire in India. He extended his rule across northern India and parts of the Deccan.

Ashoka the Great. Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka (c268-231 BC), is the most famous Maurya ruler. After a brutal conquest of Kalinga (Orissa), he expressed remorse and embraced the principles of dhamma (righteous conduct), promoting:

• Non-violence and tolerance
• Welfare measures (roads, wells, hospitals)
• Respect for all sects

Edicts and administration. Ashoka's unique rock and pillar edicts, spread across his vast empire, are the earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions and a primary historical source. They reveal a highly centralized administration, though its reach into remote areas is debated.

5. A Period of Fragmentation, Trade, and Cultural Synthesis (c200 BC - c700 AD)

An age of paradox.

Post-Mauryan decline. The Maurya empire fragmented after Ashoka, leading to centuries of political decentralization and the rise of numerous regional kingdoms across the subcontinent.

External influences. The north-west saw successive waves of invaders and rulers, including:

• Indo-Greeks (Bactrians)
• Shakas (Scythians)
• Parthians
• Kushanas (Yueh-chi), whose king Kanishka was a major patron of Buddhism

Cultural flourishing. Despite political fragmentation, this period witnessed significant cultural and intellectual development:

• Growth of trade (including with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia)
• Development of distinct artistic schools (Gandhara, Mathura)
• Compilation of major Sanskrit texts (epics in final form, law codes, scientific treatises)
• Rise of devotional cults (Bhakti) and the emergence of Puranic Hinduism

Gupta era (c320-500 AD). The Gupta dynasty briefly re-established a large empire in northern India, often seen as a "golden age" of classical Indian art, literature (Kalidasa), and science (mathematics, astronomy). However, their direct rule was less extensive and less centralized than the Mauryas.

6. Dynastic Contests and Early Muslim Incursions (c700-1320 AD)

The triumph of the Sultans.

Regional powers. Following the Guptas and Harsha (early 7th century), northern India fragmented into numerous competing kingdoms (Rajputs, Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas). In the Deccan and South, powerful dynasties like the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas vied for supremacy, often engaging in elaborate temple building as a display of power.

First Muslim contact. Arab forces conquered Sind in the early 8th century, establishing a Muslim presence in the lower Indus region. This marked the beginning of a long period of interaction, often hostile, between Islamic and Indian polities.

Turkish invasions. From the late 10th century, Turkic rulers from Afghanistan, notably Mahmud of Ghazni, launched devastating raids into northern India, primarily for plunder, targeting wealthy temple cities like Mathura and Somnath.

Delhi Sultanate. Following the defeat of Rajput confederacies, Muhammad of Ghor established a foothold in northern India, leading to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Ruled by successive dynasties (Slave, Khalji, Tughluq), the Sultanate gradually extended Muslim rule over much of northern and central India.

7. The Age of Sultanates and Southern Kingdoms (1320-1525 AD)

Other Indias.

Sultanate expansion and decline. The Delhi Sultanate reached its territorial zenith under the Tughluqs in the early 14th century, briefly extending its reach into the Deccan and South. However, internal strife, ambitious policies (like Muhammad bin Tughluq's capital shift), and widespread revolts led to its rapid contraction.

Emergence of regional states. As Delhi's power waned, numerous independent kingdoms arose across the subcontinent:

• Muslim sultanates: Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Bahmanid (Deccan)
• Hindu kingdoms: Vijayanagar (Deccan/South), Rajput states (Rajasthan), Orissa

Vijayanagar's prominence. The Vijayanagar empire (founded mid-14th century) became the dominant Hindu power in the South, often in conflict with the Bahmanid sultanate. It developed a distinct political and military system and was renowned for its wealth and monumental architecture.

Timur's invasion. In 1398, Timur (Tamerlane) from Central Asia invaded and sacked Delhi, further weakening the Sultanate and contributing to the rise of regional powers.

8. The Mughal Empire: Consolidation and Grandeur (1500-1682 AD)

The Making of the Mughal Empire.

Babur's arrival. Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, a descendant of Timur and Ghenghiz Khan, invaded India from Afghanistan in 1526, defeating the last Delhi Sultan at the Battle of Panipat. He founded the Mughal dynasty, initially controlling only a small part of northern India.

Akbar the Great. Babur's grandson, Akbar (1556-1605), is considered the true architect of the Mughal empire. Through extensive conquests and innovative administrative reforms, he consolidated Mughal rule over most of northern and central India.

• Reforms: Centralized bureaucracy, mansabdari military ranking system, revenue administration (Todar Mal)
• Policies: Religious tolerance, inclusion of Rajputs and other non-Muslims in the nobility

Zenith of power and culture. Under Jahangir (1605-27) and Shah Jahan (1627-58), the Mughal empire reached its peak in terms of wealth, military power, and cultural achievements.

• Architecture: Taj Mahal, Red Forts of Agra and Delhi, Jama Masjid
• Arts: Flourishing schools of painting, literature (Persian and Urdu)
• Economy: Booming trade (including with European companies), agricultural prosperity

9. Decline of Mughals and Rise of Regional States (1682-1750 AD)

From Taj to Raj.

Aurangzeb's reign. Aurangzeb (1658-1707), Shah Jahan's son, expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent by conquering the Deccan sultanates (Bijapur and Golconda). However, his long reign was marked by:

• Costly and protracted wars (especially in the Deccan)
• Reversal of Akbar's tolerant policies (reimposition of jizya, temple destruction)
• Growing dissent and resistance (Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas)

Rise of the Marathas. The Marathas, under Shivaji (d. 1680) and his successors, emerged as a formidable power in the Deccan, challenging Mughal authority through guerrilla warfare and later large-scale raiding.

Weakening of central authority. Aurangzeb's long absence in the Deccan and the strain of continuous warfare weakened the central government. After his death, a series of weak successors and costly wars of succession led to:

• Decline in administrative efficiency and revenue collection
• Rise of powerful provincial governors (Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad)
• Assertion of autonomy by regional powers (Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs)

10. The British Conquest and Company Rule (1750-1857 AD)

The British Conquest.

European competition. European trading companies (Portuguese, Dutch, French, British) had established coastal settlements and engaged in trade since the 16th century. The decline of Mughal authority and the rise of regional states created opportunities for these companies to expand their political influence.

Anglo-French rivalry. Wars in Europe (like the Seven Years' War) spilled over into India, leading to conflicts between the British and French East India Companies and their Indian allies. British victories effectively eliminated French power in India.

Conquest of Bengal. The British East India Company, initially a trading body, gained control of Bengal after the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764). This provided a rich revenue base and a springboard for further expansion.

Expansion across India. Through a combination of military victories, subsidiary alliances with Indian rulers, and outright annexation, the British gradually extended their control over the subcontinent. Key conflicts included:

• Mysore Wars (1767-99) against Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan
• Maratha Wars (1775-1818) against the Maratha Confederacy
• Sikh Wars (1845-49) against the Sikh Empire

11. The British Raj, Rebellion, and the Dawn of Nationalism (1857-1948 AD)

Awake the Nation.

The Great Rebellion. The widespread but ultimately unsuccessful rebellion of 1857, originating as a sepoy mutiny, challenged British rule across northern India. Its causes included:

• Grievances in the Bengal army (cartridge controversy, overseas service)
• Resentment over annexations (Doctrine of Lapse, Awadh)
• Fears of religious interference and social reforms
• Discontent among dispossessed rulers and landlords

End of Company rule. The rebellion led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct assumption of power by the British Crown in 1858. India became a part of the British Empire, ruled by a Viceroy.

Consolidation of the Raj. The British Raj established a centralized administration, built extensive infrastructure (railways, telegraphs), and implemented legal and educational reforms (English as medium of instruction). However, policies often favoured British interests and exacerbated social divisions.

Rise of nationalism. Western education and exposure to ideas of self-determination led to the emergence of Indian nationalism. Early nationalist movements, like the Indian National Congress (founded 1885), initially sought greater representation and reforms within the British system. Later, under leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, the demand for swaraj (self-rule) grew, employing methods of mass mobilization and non-violent civil disobedience.

12. Post-Partition South Asia: Division and Enduring Challenges (1948-present)

Midnight's Grandchildren.

Independence and Partition. Following the Second World War and intense negotiations, British India was partitioned along religious lines, leading to the creation of two independent states: India and Pakistan (initially comprising West and East Pakistan). The process was marked by widespread communal violence and mass migration.

Early challenges. Both new nations faced immense challenges:

• Rehabilitation of millions of refugees
• Integration of princely states (Kashmir, Hyderabad)
• Drafting of constitutions and establishment of democratic institutions
• Economic development and poverty alleviation

Indo-Pak conflicts. The unresolved issue of Kashmir led to the first Indo-Pak war in 1947-48. Subsequent wars in 1965 and 1971 (leading to the creation of Bangladesh) further entrenched hostility and militarization.

Internal dynamics. India adopted a secular, democratic, and federal constitution, though facing challenges from regionalism, caste, and communalism. Pakistan struggled
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Last updated: May 7, 2025