Introduction to Information Science

1. Information Science is a unique, multidisciplinary field focused on recorded information.

The uniqueness of information science lies in its concern for all components of the communication chain and the ways in which they interact with, and impact upon, each other.

A field of study. Information science isn't easily categorized; it's best seen as a multidisciplinary field focused on recorded information and documentation. It draws on various forms of knowledge – sociological, mathematical, philosophical – to understand its core subject. This broad perspective distinguishes it from disciplines based on a single form of knowledge.

The communication chain. Its central concern is the entire lifecycle of recorded information, from creation and dissemination to organization, retrieval, use, and preservation. While other fields might focus on specific parts (like computer science on retrieval or publishing on dissemination), information science uniquely examines the totality and the interactions between these stages. This holistic view is its defining characteristic.

Underlying professional practice. This academic discipline underpins a range of professional activities vital in today's world. These include managing data, information, and knowledge, traditional librarianship, metadata and taxonomy creation, records management, and archiving in various institutions like libraries, museums, and galleries. It provides the theoretical basis for these practical roles.

2. The history of information is fundamentally the story of documents and evolving communication.

We describe ourselves as living in an information age as if this were something completely new.

Ancient roots. The idea that we are uniquely in an "information age" overlooks millennia of human history centered around recording and communicating information. From prehistoric cave paintings and proto-writing on bone tags to the sophisticated clay tablet libraries of Mesopotamia and papyrus scrolls of Egypt, humans have long relied on documents to preserve and transmit knowledge across time and space.

Transformative technologies. Key technological shifts have repeatedly reshaped the information environment. The invention of true writing systems (like cuneiform and alphabets), the transition from scrolls to the more portable codex, the advent of printing with movable type, and the rise of mass communication technologies (like telegraph and steam presses) each dramatically altered how information was created, disseminated, and organized.

The digital revolution. The most recent, and perhaps most profound, transformation is the digital transition, leading to the internet and the World Wide Web. This has created a pervasive "infosphere" where physical and digital blend ("onlife"), enabling new document forms, disrupting traditional communication chains, and necessitating new approaches to information management and access.

3. Understanding information requires grappling with its complex, multifaceted nature across domains.

It is hardly to be expected that a single concept of information would satisfactorily account for the numerous possible applications of this general field.

Beyond meaning. While in everyday language information means meaningful facts or knowledge, its concept is far broader. Shannon's mathematical theory of communication, for instance, quantifies information based purely on statistical probability and surprise, explicitly ignoring meaning for efficient transmission. This highlights that "information" can be understood at different levels (empiric, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic).

Across the sciences. The concept extends deeply into the physical and biological worlds. In physics, information is increasingly seen as a fundamental quantity, linked to entropy and even the structure of the universe ("It from Bit"). In biology, information processing and transmission are considered essential to life, from genetic codes in DNA to communication between cells and organisms.

Social and philosophical views. In the social world, information is tied to meaning, truth, relevance, and context. It's often placed in hierarchies like Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom, though this is debated. Philosophically, information is a core concept in Luciano Floridi's Philosophy of Information (PI), which views reality itself as informational and seeks to provide a foundational understanding for the digital age.

4. Documents are central to information science, encompassing diverse forms and requiring theoretical understanding.

Is a star a document? Is a pebble rolled by a torrent a document? Is a living animal a document? No. But the photographs and the catalogues of stars, the stones in a museum of mineralogy, and the animals that are catalogued and shown in a zoo, are documents.

More than just text. The concept of a "document" in information science is much broader than printed or written text. As early documentalists like Suzanne Briet argued, any physical item can be considered a document if it provides information or evidence, especially when placed in a collection and organized for study. This includes objects in museums, photographs, and even living specimens in a zoo.

Document theory. This expanded view is formalized in document theory, which examines the nature and attributes of documents (indexicality, documentality, complementarity, fixity/fluidity, productivity) and the processes of documentation (creation, organization, preservation, use). It distinguishes between "documents by intention" (like books) and "documents by attribution" (like a geological specimen in a museum).

Digital transformation. The digital age has further complicated the concept, introducing new forms like multimedia documents, web pages, social media posts, and datasets. These digital documents are often less fixed and more fluid than physical ones, requiring new theoretical approaches to understand their nature, organization, and use within the "infosphere."

5. Philosophy and theory provide foundational perspectives for understanding information science.

Today, philosophy faces the challenge of providing a foundational treatment of the phenomena and the ideas underlying the information revolution, in order to foster our understanding and guide both the responsible construction of our society and the sustainable management of our natural and synthetic environments.

Seeking foundations. Information science, being multidisciplinary, draws on various philosophical perspectives (realism, constructivism, pragmatism) and theories from other fields (psychology, sociology, computer science). However, there's ongoing debate about whether it has its own unique philosophical or theoretical core, or if it merely borrows from others.

Key philosophical ideas. Relevant philosophical branches include ontology (what exists, like information or documents), epistemology (what is knowledge, how do we know it), and ethics (how should we use information). Concepts like Popper's "Three Worlds" (especially World 3 of objective knowledge) and Floridi's Philosophy of Information (PI) offer potential foundational frameworks, with PI being the most comprehensive attempt to date.

Paradigms and theories. Within the field, different "paradigms" or "turns" (like the systems, cognitive, socio-cognitive, and neo-documentary paradigms) represent shifts in focus and methodology. Theories, often more specific than paradigms, range from "grand theories" (though rare and debated) to "mid-range" conceptual models (like those in information behavior) and practical frameworks for design and action.

6. Information organization provides essential tools for managing and accessing documents and knowledge.

The first step in wisdom is to know the things themselves: this notion consists in having a true idea of the objects: objects are distinguished and known by classifying them methodically and giving them appropriate names.

Fundamental task. Organizing information and documents is a core activity in information science, essential for making collections accessible and usable. This involves describing documents (metadata, cataloguing) and representing their subject matter (classification, indexing, thesauri, ontologies). It's about creating structure and order from potentially vast and diverse resources.

Concepts and tools. Key concepts include understanding concepts and categories, using hierarchical and faceted structures, and employing controlled vocabularies (like subject headings, thesauri, and taxonomies) to ensure consistency and precision in description and retrieval. These tools help overcome the ambiguity and variability of natural language.

Evolving practices. While traditional methods like library classification schemes (Dewey, UDC, Library of Congress) and cataloguing rules have long histories, they are continually adapted for the digital environment. New metadata standards (Dublin Core, MARC, RDA, LRM) and knowledge organization systems (ontologies, SKOS) are developed to handle digital resources, linked data, and automated processing, though the underlying principles often remain consistent.

7. Digital technologies and data systems are transforming information handling and creating new challenges.

Our dependence on increasingly pervasive technology has served to make it a significant determinant of the modern human condition.

The digital bedrock. Digital technologies, from the fundamental architecture of computers and networks to sophisticated software and artificial intelligence, form the essential infrastructure of the modern information environment. Understanding these technologies is crucial for information professionals, as they underpin how information is created, stored, processed, and accessed.

Data handling. Data systems are increasingly central, requiring skills in data wrangling (collecting, storing, cleaning, combining) and data analysis (mining, statistics, visualization). Tools like spreadsheets, databases, programming languages (Python, R), and specialized software (OpenRefine, Voyant Tools) are vital for managing and extracting meaning from datasets.

AI and automation. Artificial intelligence is rapidly changing information practices, enabling automation in areas like metadata creation, indexing, and information extraction. While offering immense potential, AI also raises significant ethical concerns regarding bias, transparency, privacy, and accountability, necessitating careful consideration in its application.

8. Quantitative methods (Informetrics) offer insights into information patterns but require careful application.

To measure is to know.

Measuring the infosphere. Informetrics, including bibliometrics, scientometrics, webometrics, and altmetrics, provides quantitative methods for studying the creation, communication, and use of information resources. It's about counting and analyzing patterns in documents, citations, web links, and other information artifacts to understand trends and structures.

Informetric laws. Key findings include statistical regularities like Lotka's law (author productivity), Bradford's law (literature scattering across sources), and Zipf's law (word frequency). These "laws," while approximate, reveal consistent patterns in information production and distribution, often related to principles like "success breeds success" or "least effort."

Applications and controversies. Informetrics is applied to understand the structure of literature and disciplines, inform collection management decisions, analyze bodies of research, and, most controversially, assess the impact and productivity of researchers, institutions, and journals (e.g., Journal Impact Factor, h-index). While valuable, these metrics require careful interpretation and ethical consideration to avoid misuse.

9. Information behavior and practices are deeply embedded in social contexts and individual differences.

One thing we know now … is that underlying human propens
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Last updated: May 4, 2025