Masters of Command

1. Ten Qualities Define Successful Commanders

The story of these three supreme commanders is as fresh today as it was two thousand years ago.

Beyond the Battlefield. Alexander, Hannibal, and Caesar weren't just skilled tacticians; they were soldier-statesmen who understood that war extended far beyond the battlefield. They had to decide whom to fight, why to fight, and when to stop, envisioning a new world order that would bring stability and lasting power. This required a unique blend of military prowess and political acumen.

The Imperfect Conquerors. Despite their military genius, all three commanders fell short as statesmen. Alexander died young without securing his succession, Hannibal lost his war against Rome, and Caesar was assassinated before he could fully implement his vision. Their stories serve as both lessons and warnings for leaders in any field.

Ten Keys to Success. These commanders shared ten key qualities that underpinned their wartime success: ambition, judgment, leadership, audacity, agility, infrastructure, strategy, terror, branding, and the elusive quality of Divine Providence. These qualities, both admirable and not, defined their approach to war and conquest.

2. Ambition Fuels the Conqueror's Fire

They could no more stop conquering than lions can stop hunting.

The Love of Honor. The Greeks called it "philotimia," the love of honor, and it burned fiercely within Alexander, Hannibal, and Caesar. They possessed an insatiable drive for distinction, a "megalopsychia" or greatness of soul, that propelled them to seek ever-greater conquests. This ambition, though lofty, was often intertwined with egotism and injustice.

Beyond Lofty Aims. Alexander sought to conquer an empire, not to right a wrong. Hannibal rejected negotiation to rival Alexander's conquests. Caesar overturned the republic to become the first man in Rome. Their ambition was a force of nature, driving them to achieve what others deemed impossible.

The Conqueror's Drive. These commanders were not content with incremental gains or limited objectives. They were driven by a relentless pursuit of new worlds to conquer, a thirst for glory that consumed them and shaped their actions. This ambition, though inspiring, often came at a great cost to themselves and others.

3. Judgment Navigates the Fog of War

When faced with a new situation, each could draw from past experience and come up with the right answer.

Strategic Intuition. More than just intelligence, these commanders possessed strategic intuition, the ability to draw from past experience and make sound decisions even with imperfect information. They were unflappable under pressure, thinking creatively and effectively in the face of chaos. They knew war, but they also knew people.

Learning from Experience. Alexander and Hannibal learned at the feet of their warrior fathers, while Caesar honed his skills through politics and conquest. By the time they embarked on their great campaigns, they were already masters of the art of war.

Blind Spots. Despite their competence, each commander had a blind spot: Alexander ignored navies, Hannibal ignored sieges, and Caesar barely knew logistics. These disabilities, though significant, did not ultimately derail their ambitions.

4. Leadership Inspires Loyalty and Obedience

I didn’t follow the cause. I followed the man—and he was my friend.

Iron Souls and the Common Touch. The great commanders were decisive, forceful, and assured, yet they also possessed the common touch, inspiring loyalty and obedience through personal connection. They were skilled actors, able to ignite or quell passions as needed.

Masters of Reward and Punishment. They used honors and cash prizes to foster bravery, paid their troops well, and ensured benefits for widows and orphans. But they also wielded the fear factor, punishing disobedience with beatings, executions, and even crucifixions.

Beyond Friendship. While personal qualities mattered, these commanders did not rely on friendship alone. They were skilled at managing their armies, using both reward and punishment to maintain discipline and inspire their troops.

5. Audacity Dares the Impossible

Because he loved honor, he loved danger.

Scaling Mount Everest. Alexander, Hannibal, and Caesar dared to do what couldn't be done, confronting empires with far larger armies and resources. They risked everything for victory, believing in their invincible destiny and good fortune.

Leading from the Front. They fought in the thick of things, sharing their men's risks and winning their hearts. This boldness, though dangerous, was also effective, inspiring their troops and demonstrating their commitment to the cause.

Calculated Risks. While bold, they also calculated the odds, securing their base before racing out in front. They were risk-takers, but not reckless, knowing when to be audacious and when to exercise caution.

6. Agility Adapts to Changing Tides

They were soldiers for all seasons.

Retooling for Change. The great commanders were soldiers for all seasons, adapting to changing conditions on the battlefield. Alexander switched to counterinsurgency in Central Asia, Hannibal shifted between set battles and ambushes, and Caesar excelled in both battlefield and urban warfare.

Speed and Mobility. Speed was their watchword, mobility their hallmark. Alexander's heavy cavalry, Hannibal's light horsemen, and Caesar's lightning infantry thrusts were the agents of success. They traveled light, living off the land and mastering multitasking.

Limits of Agility. Agility had its limits, however. Alexander was nearly stymied by the Persian fleet, Hannibal struggled with sieges, and Caesar nearly starved his army during the siege of Dyrrachium. Nor did agile warriors necessarily make good politicians.

7. Infrastructure Sustains the War Machine

To win a war takes certain material things: arms and armor, ships, food, money, money, and more money.

Material Resources. Winning a war requires material resources: arms, armor, ships, food, and money. With enough money, you can buy the rest, even manpower. But money can't buy synergy.

Building Synergy. The great commanders inherited dazzling instruments and honed them into something even sharper and more deadly. They built combined-arms forces trained to fight together as a coherent whole, welded to their leader.

Inherited Excellence. Philip II built the Macedonian army, and Alexander added the crowning touch. Hannibal inherited the men who had carved out a new Carthaginian empire in Spain. Caesar took the Roman legions and made them his own.

8. Strategy Charts the Course to Victory

Great commanders must master them all.

Mastering All Levels. Strategy encompasses everything from battle tactics to war strategy and grand strategy. Great commanders must master them all, from the battlefield to the political arena.

Hannibal's Mastery of Surprise. Hannibal, in particular, was the master of surprise, leaving the enemy breathless with his march over the Alps and his array of unheard-of tricks. However, he failed at long-term thinking.

Long-Term Vision. Alexander and Caesar turned the tables on Hannibal when it came to war strategy. They thought ahead and were dogged, knowing that military victory does not equal political success.

9. Terror and Branding Shape Perceptions

They were willing to kill innocents and everyone knew it.

The Power of Fear. The great commanders were willing to kill innocents, and everyone knew it. This too was a secret of their success, instilling fear in their enemies and deterring resistance.

Chameleons and Populists. They were chameleons, playing the populist and crafting grand causes and clear symbols. Alexander began as an avenger and ended as a demigod. Hannibal stood for vengeance and liberation. Caesar fought for the rights of the Roman people and his own good name.

The Art of Branding. They were masters of branding, shaping perceptions and co-opting the conquered. Alexander declared himself king of Asia, Hannibal rallied Italians to his cause, and Caesar combined the carrot of pardons with the stick of military force.

10. Divine Providence Guides Destiny

Although the previous nine factors were necessary, Divine Providence was essential.

Beyond Luck. Napoleon asked for generals who were not only good but also lucky. But only Divine Providence, and not mere luck, can explain the guidance and protection needed to reach the heights they did.

The Hand of Fate. Divine Providence guided the steps of young men born to be conquerors, like Alexander and Hannibal, and also the steps of a middle-aged politician who turned out to be the greatest general of all—Caesar.

Man Plans, God Laughs. Only Divine Providence can lead a man's foes off the cliff. Without having to lift a finger, Alexander saw his worst enemy die suddenly. The Romans played into Hannibal's hands by launching their biggest army against him at Cannae.

11. The Five Stages of Warfare: A Timeless Rhythm

Success is not only a matter of the ten qualities just discussed, but of knowing when to deploy them.

A Universal Pattern. The wars of Alexander, Hannibal, and Caesar followed a similar pattern, consisting of five stages: attack, resistance, clash, closing the net, and knowing when to stop. This model fits not just ancient wars but more recent conflicts as well.

Beyond a Three-Stage Process. Most people think of war as a three-stage process: attack, fight, win or lose. But that model is wrong because it simplifies and distorts the nature of war. We cannot understand war without allowing for its unpredictability and its fundamentally political nature.

The Great Commanders' Understanding. The great commanders knew this. They didn't just plan to win. They anticipated failure and they knew how to rebound from it. They put battlefield success into context. They knew that you could win a battle and still lose the war. They also understood that military victory does not equal political success.

Last updated: March 18, 2025