Filozofia dla zabieganych

1. Ethics are about actions and character, guiding us toward good and away from bad.

Ethics is about good and bad actions, or good and bad people.

Defining Ethics. Ethics encompasses the principles that govern our behavior and character, distinguishing between right and wrong, virtue and vice. It involves both the actions we take and the kind of person we strive to be, influencing our decisions in everyday life. Ethical considerations range from grand moral dilemmas to subtle choices affecting others.

Ethical Frameworks. Various philosophical traditions offer frameworks for ethical decision-making, including utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. These frameworks provide different lenses through which to evaluate actions and character, helping us navigate complex moral landscapes. Understanding these frameworks can empower individuals to make more informed and principled choices.

Practical Application. Ethical considerations are not confined to abstract theory; they permeate our daily lives. From simple acts of kindness to complex business decisions, ethics guide our interactions and shape our relationships. By reflecting on our values and considering the impact of our actions, we can cultivate a more ethical and fulfilling life.

2. Moral calculations, though appealing, often oversimplify the complexities of ethical decisions.

It is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong.

Bentham's Calculus. Jeremy Bentham's hedonic calculus sought to quantify morality by weighing the pleasure and pain resulting from actions. This approach aimed to provide a rational basis for ethical decision-making, promoting actions that maximize overall happiness. The calculus considers factors like intensity, duration, certainty, and extent of pleasure and pain.

Limitations of Quantification. Despite its appeal, the hedonic calculus faces challenges in accurately measuring and comparing subjective experiences. Reducing morality to a mathematical formula can overlook the nuances of human emotions and the complexities of real-world situations. It is difficult to predict all consequences and assign values to them.

Beyond Calculation. While utilitarianism offers a valuable perspective, ethical decision-making often requires considering factors beyond quantifiable outcomes. Principles like justice, fairness, and individual rights may conflict with maximizing overall happiness, necessitating a more holistic approach. Ethical considerations should involve both reason and empathy.

3. Virtue lies in finding the 'golden mean' between extremes, requiring wisdom and practice.

We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.

Aristotle's Golden Mean. Aristotle proposed that ethical behavior involves finding the "golden mean" between two extremes: excess and deficiency. This approach emphasizes moderation and balance, seeking the virtuous middle ground in various aspects of life. Virtues like courage, generosity, and honesty are seen as balanced expressions of character.

Practical Application. Identifying the golden mean requires careful consideration of context and individual circumstances. What constitutes courage in one situation may be recklessness in another. Developing the wisdom to discern the appropriate course of action requires practice and experience.

Phronesis. Aristotle called this practical wisdom phronesis. It is the ability to judge well in particular contexts. It is developed through experience and reflection. It is not simply knowing the rules, but knowing how to apply them.

4. Universal principles, like Kant's categorical imperative, challenge us to consider the broader impact of our actions.

Two things fill me with awe: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.

Kant's Imperative. Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative posits that moral actions should be guided by universalizable principles. This means acting in a way that you would want everyone else to act in similar situations. The imperative challenges us to consider the broader implications of our choices.

Universalisability. The first formulation of the categorical imperative asks us to consider: "What if everyone did that?" This thought experiment helps identify actions that would be self-defeating or harmful if universally adopted. Lying, stealing, and breaking promises are examples of actions that fail this test.

Perfect and Imperfect Duties. Kant distinguishes between perfect duties, which are absolute and universal, and imperfect duties, which allow for some discretion. Perfect duties, like not lying, must always be followed. Imperfect duties, like helping others, should be pursued as much as possible.

5. Egoism and altruism represent opposing forces, each with its own implications for individual and collective well-being.

It is rational and natural for humans to look after themselves.

Rational Egoism. Ayn Rand's philosophy of rational egoism asserts that individuals should prioritize their own self-interest. This perspective views every action as a calculation of personal benefit, rejecting self-sacrifice as irrational. Relationships and interactions are seen as contracts where each party seeks to maximize their own advantage.

Comte's Altruism. Auguste Comte, in contrast, championed altruism, emphasizing the importance of acting for the benefit of others. This perspective suggests that individuals should strive to overcome their egoistic impulses and prioritize the well-being of society. Altruism promotes empathy, compassion, and a sense of collective responsibility.

Balancing Self and Others. While egoism and altruism appear to be opposing forces, a balanced approach may be optimal. Recognizing the importance of both self-care and contributing to the well-being of others can lead to a more fulfilling and sustainable life. Ethical considerations should involve both individual needs and collective responsibilities.

6. Intentions matter, but ignorance and negligence complicate moral judgments.

The moral worth of an action depended entirely on its intentions.

Abelard's Emphasis on Intent. Peter Abelard argued that the moral worth of an action depends primarily on the intentions behind it. This perspective challenges the notion that actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of the agent's state of mind. Unintentional harm may be less blameworthy than intentional wrongdoing.

The Problem of Ignorance. Abelard's focus on intentions raises questions about the role of ignorance in moral judgments. Are individuals responsible for the unintended consequences of their actions if they were unaware of the potential harm? The line between ignorance and negligence can be difficult to discern.

Modern Secular Courts. Modern courts have to weigh up various character studies, cross-reference all the evidence and consider the plausibility of the situation, all of which is incredibly hard, and has a huge scope for error. Furthermore, what about the very fine line between ignorance and negligence? Is ‘I didn’t know guns were dangerous!’ a reasonable defence?

7. Expanding our circle of empathy challenges inherent biases and promotes a more inclusive morality.

It might be ‘natural’, but does that make it right …?

Singer's Expanding Circle. Peter Singer advocates for expanding our circle of empathy to include all sentient beings, challenging inherent biases towards friends, family, and species. This perspective suggests that moral considerations should extend beyond our immediate social groups. It challenges the notion that evolutionary or biological factors justify discrimination.

Beyond Biological Priming. Singer argues that humans possess a unique capacity for rationality that allows us to transcend biological determinism. By using reason to create values and systems, we can expand our empathetic circle to encompass a wider range of individuals and groups. This involves recognizing the dignity and worth of all humans, regardless of their genetic connections.

Practical Implications. Expanding our circle of empathy has significant implications for how we treat others. It challenges us to question our biases and consider the impact of our actions on a broader scale. This may involve supporting social justice initiatives, advocating for animal rights, or promoting global cooperation.

8. Existentialism emphasizes freedom, choice, and authenticity in a world without inherent meaning.

Every moment, of every day, demands a choice. We have freedom in every waking second. Nothing can take that away from us. We are ‘condemned to be free’.

Core Tenets. Existentialism rejects the notion of pre-determined essences or fixed identities, emphasizing the freedom and responsibility of individuals to create their own meaning. This perspective highlights the importance of choice, authenticity, and self-determination in a world without inherent purpose. Individuals are seen as "condemned to be free."

Bad Faith. Jean-Paul Sartre introduced the concept of "bad faith," which refers to the denial of our own freedom and responsibility. This involves attributing our actions to external forces or social norms, rather than acknowledging our own choices. Overcoming bad faith requires embracing our freedom and taking ownership of our lives.

L'appel du vide. Translated literally as ‘the appeal of the void’, l’appel du vide encapsulates this feeling and it’s a great way to introduce existentialism, or the philosophy of choice and authenticity. It is that voice you hear in a deep chamber of your mind, saying: ‘You could do it.’ It’s an odd sense that you don’t actually trust yourself not to do something silly.

9. Facing mortality and absurdity can lead to a more meaningful and authentic existence.

Let us deprive death of its strangeness; let us get used to it.

Memento Mori. Memento mori, or "remember death," is a practice that encourages individuals to contemplate their own mortality. This reflection can help trivialize everyday worries and prioritize what truly matters in life. By acknowledging the inevitability of death, we can appreciate the preciousness of each moment.

Camus and Absurdity. Albert Camus explored the "absurdity of existence," recognizing the inherent conflict between our desire for meaning and the meaningless nature of the universe. He argued that embracing this absurdity, rather than raging against it, can lead to a more joyful and authentic life. Sisyphus, for Camus, is happy.

Heidegger on Mortality. Without death to stand as the final curtain, Heidegger believes that we will find no meaning. If we live our life thinking that we’re immortal, it’ll be an inauthentic existence where we never come to accept how final our choices are. We won’t appreciate the magnitude of each decision we take.

10. Art provides unique insights into the human condition, offering catharsis, beauty, and reflection.

Tragedy is the greatest form of this because the pity and fear it elicits leaves the viewer free of pent-up emotion.

Catharsis. Aristotle believed that art, particularly tragedy, provides catharsis by allowing us to experience and release pent-up emotions. This process can lead to emotional cleansing and a sense of renewal. Scary movies and heart-wrenching dramas offer a safe outlet for intense feelings.

Wabi-Sabi. The Japanese concept of wabi-sabi finds beauty in imperfection and transience. This aesthetic recognizes the poignancy of old, broken, and decayed objects, reminding us of our own mortality and the impermanence of all things. It is more akin to a relationship between you the viewer, and the object you are viewing.

Music. For Schopenhauer, music does not represent any object in the world, but it expresses the very fabric of our being: the dynamic, striving, reaching life force that he calls the ‘will’. Music echoes in our soul because it is the perfect, beautiful, aesthetic expression of our nature.

11. Collective myths shape societies, influencing beliefs, behaviors, and cooperation.

We are capable of not only describing reality but also creating realities, and this lets us cooperate, strive and progress together.

Harari on Myths. Yuval Harari argues that collective myths are essential for human cooperation and societal progress. These myths, such as money, nations, and human rights, provide shared beliefs and values that enable large-scale collaboration. Our ability to commit to these myths is what makes us privately and collectively successful.

Examples of Myths. Money, nations, and human rights are all examples of collective myths that shape our behavior and interactions. These concepts have no inherent value but are powerful because we collectively agree to believe in them. If we want to keep them, then we all have to commit and recommit to them over and over again.

The Power of Belief. Our ability to commit to these myths is what makes us privately and collectively successful. We are capable of not only describing reality but also creating realities, and this lets us cooperate, strive and progress together.

12. Society and relationships define us, requiring constant negotiation between individual desires and collective needs.

Humans are a passionate species and all of these feelings are directed out at the world.

The Social Animal. Aristotle said that to be human is to live alongside other humans. We all of us, in some big or small way, live in relationship with another. At one end, we’re all children to someone. At the other, we’re part of the human race. Then there’s everything in between. We cannot help but live in society; it’s how we’re made. It’s in our DNA.

De Grouchy on Loving Parents. Everything goes back to our parents. You don’t have to be twiddling your beard and smoking a cigar in Vienna to appreciate parental impact. They teach us about the world, they tell us how to behave, they clothe, feed and care for us. Most of all, though, it matters that they were there at all.

Weber on Burning the Midnight Oil. We feel guilty about not replying to an email, we don’t want to be the first to leave the office, we brightly say ‘I enjoy working!’ in job interviews, and many retirees report that it takes a long time to get used to the feeling of not working. We define ourselves by our vocations, and Weber was one of the first to point out how unnatural and trained this mindset is.

Last updated: April 4, 2025