Of Man

1. Nature and Artifice: Understanding the Artificial Man

For by Art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was intended.

The State as a Machine. Hobbes introduces the concept of the Commonwealth as an "Artificial Man," a construct designed to mirror and improve upon the natural human condition. Just as a watch is an artificial creation mimicking life through springs and wheels, the state is an artificial entity created to provide protection and order, exceeding the capabilities of individual humans.

Components of the State. Hobbes meticulously draws parallels between the human body and the state. The sovereign is the artificial soul, magistrates are the joints, rewards and punishments are the nerves, wealth is the strength, and the people's safety is the business. This analogy underscores the interconnectedness of the state's components, each serving a vital function to ensure its overall health and stability.

The Purpose of the State. The creation of this artificial man is driven by the need for security and defense. Hobbes argues that the state is intended to protect individuals from the chaos and violence inherent in the state of nature. The social contract, the agreement by which individuals cede some of their rights to a sovereign, is the foundation upon which this artificial man is built, ensuring collective survival and well-being.

2. The Foundation of Knowledge: Sense and Imagination

The Originall of them all, is that which we call SENSE; (For there is no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense.)

Sense as the Origin. Hobbes posits that all thoughts originate from sense experience. There is no innate knowledge; instead, our minds are blank slates filled through interactions with the external world. This empiricist view emphasizes the importance of sensory input as the primary source of understanding.

Imagination as Decaying Sense. Imagination is described as "decaying sense," the lingering after-effects of sensory experiences. When we see, hear, or feel something, it leaves an impression on our minds, which fades over time but can be recalled. Memory is simply the awareness that a sense is fading, old, and past.

The Train of Thought. Hobbes explains that our thoughts are not random but follow a "train" or sequence. One thought leads to another based on past sensory experiences. This train can be unguided, like a dream, or regulated by desire and design, leading to invention and foresight. This regulated thought is the basis for prudence and wisdom, allowing humans to anticipate and plan for the future.

3. The Power of Speech: Naming and Understanding

But the most noble and profitable invention of all other, was that of SPEECH, consisting of Names or Appellations, and their Connexion; whereby men register their Thoughts; recall them when they are past; and also declare them one to another for mutuall utility and conversation.

Speech as a Tool. Hobbes identifies speech as the most crucial invention, enabling humans to record thoughts, recall past experiences, and communicate with one another. Without speech, there could be no society, contract, or peace. Speech allows for the transfer of mental discourse into verbal discourse, facilitating mutual understanding and cooperation.

Names and Universals. Names serve as marks or notes of remembrance, allowing us to categorize and understand the world. Proper names refer to individual things, while universal names apply to many things sharing a common quality. This imposition of names allows us to turn the reckoning of consequences of things imagined in the mind, into a reckoning of the consequences of appellations.

Truth and Definition. Truth, according to Hobbes, consists in the correct ordering of names in affirmations. Precise truth requires remembering what each name stands for and placing it accordingly. Geometry, the only science bestowed upon mankind, begins with settling the definitions of words, highlighting the importance of clear and consistent language in acquiring knowledge.

4. The Passions: Motivations Behind Voluntary Motions

That which men Desire, they are also sayd to LOVE: and to HATE those things, for which they have Aversion.

Appetite and Aversion. Hobbes delves into the internal beginnings of voluntary motions, which he terms "passions." Appetite, or desire, is the endeavor towards something, while aversion is the endeavor away from something. These fundamental motions drive human behavior, shaping our interactions with the world.

Good and Evil. Hobbes defines good and evil in relation to individual desires and aversions. What a person desires is considered good, while what they hate is considered evil. There is no absolute standard of good and evil, but rather a subjective determination based on personal preferences.

The Spectrum of Passions. Hobbes identifies a range of passions, including love, hate, hope, fear, courage, and despair, each arising from different combinations of appetite, aversion, and opinion. These passions influence our thoughts, actions, and ultimately, our decisions, driving the complex interplay of human behavior.

5. The Natural State: War of All Against All

Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live without a common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of every man, against every man.

Equality and Conflict. Hobbes argues that nature has made men fundamentally equal in their faculties, leading to an equality of hope in attaining their ends. When two men desire the same thing, they become enemies, endeavoring to destroy or subdue one another. This inherent competition and diffidence create a state of war.

Causes of Quarrel. Hobbes identifies three principal causes of quarrel in human nature: competition, diffidence, and glory. Competition drives men to invade for gain, diffidence for safety, and glory for reputation. These motivations lead to a perpetual state of war, where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

The Absence of Justice. In the state of war, there is no place for justice or injustice. Without a common power, there is no law, and without law, there is no injustice. Force and fraud become the cardinal virtues, and there is no concept of property or dominion. This bleak depiction underscores the necessity of a social contract to escape the horrors of the natural state.

6. The Social Contract: Origin of the Commonwealth

The only way to erect such a Common Power, as may be able to defend them from the invasion of Forraigners, and the injuries of one another, and thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by their owne industrie, and by the fruites of the Earth, they may nourish themselves and live contentedly; is, to conferre all their power and strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of men.

The Need for a Common Power. Hobbes asserts that the only way to escape the state of war is to erect a common power capable of defending individuals from both foreign invaders and one another. This power must be strong enough to enforce covenants and ensure the observation of the laws of nature. The joining together of a small number of men is insufficient, as is governance by individual judgments.

The Transfer of Rights. The creation of a commonwealth requires individuals to confer all their power and strength upon one man or assembly of men. This involves reducing all wills to one will, appointing a sovereign to bear their person, and owning and acknowledging the sovereign's actions. This is more than consent or concord; it is a real unity in one person.

The Sovereign and the Subject. The multitude so united in one person is called a commonwealth, or civitas. The person carrying this authority is the sovereign, possessing sovereign power, while everyone else is a subject. This sovereign power can be attained through natural force or voluntary agreement, leading to a commonwealth by acquisition or institution.

7. Liberty and Law: The Scope of Freedom in Society

The Liberty of a Subject, lyeth therefore only in those things, which in regulating their actions, the Soveraign hath prætermitted: such as is the Liberty to buy, and sell, and otherwise contract with one another; to choose their own aboad, their own diet, their own trade of life, and institute their children as they themselves think fit; & the like.

Liberty as Absence of Opposition. Hobbes defines liberty as the absence of external impediments to motion. A free man is one who is not hindered from doing what he has the will to do. However, when applied to anything but bodies, the words "free" and "liberty" are abused.

The Artificial Chains. Men create artificial chains called civil laws to attain peace and conservation. These laws are fastened to the lips of the sovereign and to the ears of the subjects. Liberty of subjects exists only in those areas where the sovereign has not made laws, such as the freedom to buy, sell, choose one's abode, diet, and trade.

Limits to Liberty. The sovereign power of life and death is not abolished or limited by such liberty. Subjects authorize the sovereign's actions, so the sovereign can do no injury to them. However, subjects retain the right to defend their own bodies, and the obligation to obey the sovereign lasts only as long as the sovereign can protect them.

8. Seeds of Dissolution: Internal Threats to the State

Though nothing can be immortall, which mortals make; yet, if men had the use of reason they pretend to, their Common-wealths might be secured, at least, from perishing by internall diseases.

Imperfect Institution. Hobbes acknowledges that commonwealths, being mortal creations, are susceptible to dissolution. Internal diseases, arising from imperfect institution, pose a significant threat. One such disease is a sovereign accepting less power than necessary for the commonwealth's peace and defense.

Seditious Doctrines. Seditious doctrines can poison a commonwealth. The belief that every private man is a judge of good and evil actions undermines the authority of civil law. Similarly, the notion that acting against one's conscience is sin encourages disobedience. The idea that faith and sanctity come from supernatural inspiration diminishes the role of reason and law.

Division of Power. The division of sovereign power is a direct threat to the essence of a commonwealth. When power is divided, it is destroyed, leading to confusion and dissolution. False doctrines, imitation of neighboring governments, and the influence of classical writings can also contribute to the downfall of a state.

9. The Kingdom of Darkness: Errors Obscuring Truth

By PHILOSOPHY, is understood the Knowledge acquired by Reasoning, from the Manner of the Generation of any thing, to the Properties; or from the Properties, to some possible Way of Generation of the same; to the end to bee able to produce, as far as matter, and humane force permit, such Effects, as humane life requireth.

Vain Philosophy. Hobbes introduces the concept of the "Kingdom of Darkness," characterized by vain philosophy and fabulous traditions. He defines philosophy as knowledge acquired by reasoning from generation to properties or vice versa, aiming to produce effects beneficial to human life. However, much of what passes for philosophy is mere speculation and error.

Metaphysics and Absurdities. Hobbes criticizes the metaphysics of Aristotle and the Schoolmen, particularly their doctrine of separated essences. He argues that these abstract entities lead to absurdities, such as the belief in incorporeal souls and the possibility of one body being in multiple places at once. Such vain philosophy obscures the truth and undermines the authority of reason.

Suppression of True Philosophy. The suppression of true philosophy is another hallmark of the Kingdom of Darkness. Those in power, lacking sufficient knowledge or authority, may punish those who propose new ideas, even if they are true. This stifles intellectual progress and perpetuates ignorance, hindering the advancement of human understanding.

Last updated: March 3, 2025