On Human Nature

1. Human Nature: Biology and Beyond

We human beings are animals, governed by the laws of biology.

Biological foundation. Humans are fundamentally biological beings, subject to the same natural laws as other animals. Our lives are shaped by biological needs, genetic imperatives, and evolutionary pressures. This perspective acknowledges the influence of genes on our emotions, behaviors, and social structures, reminding us of the body's power over our actions.

Transcending biology. While acknowledging our biological roots, humans possess unique attributes that set us apart. These include morality, self-consciousness, symbolism, art, and interpersonal emotions. These "higher" characteristics create a gap between humans and other animals, suggesting the need for explanations beyond purely biological ones.

The human story. We are story-telling creatures, often constructing narratives that obscure or transcend our biological realities. These stories, whether about erotic love, territorial claims, or noble ideals, shape our understanding of ourselves and the world, often downplaying the underlying biological drives.

2. The Power of Stories: Narratives and Reality

Once again, it seems that we are in the habit of telling ourselves stories that make no reference to the biological realities in which they are rooted.

Narrative construction. Humans create stories to make sense of their experiences, often imbuing them with meaning and value that go beyond biological explanations. These narratives shape our perceptions of love, justice, and national identity, providing a framework for understanding our place in the world.

Beyond biological reductionism. While biological factors influence our behavior, reducing human experience solely to biology ignores the power of narratives. These stories, though rooted in biological realities, take on a life of their own, influencing our actions and shaping our understanding of the world.

The human condition. Our capacity for storytelling is a defining characteristic of the human condition. These narratives, whether religious, philosophical, or cultural, provide a framework for understanding our existence, imbuing it with meaning and purpose that transcends mere biological survival.

3. Genetics vs. Memes: Nature and Culture

Natural selection can account for all the difficult facts presented by human culture, Dawkins suggests, once we see culture as developing according to the same principles as the individual organism.

The selfish gene. Richard Dawkins proposes that culture evolves according to the same principles as organisms, with "memes" acting as self-replicating units of cultural information. Memes, like genes, compete for survival and replication, using human brains as hosts to propagate themselves.

Cultural evolution. Memetics suggests that ideas, beliefs, and attitudes are conscious forms taken by self-replicating entities, spreading like diseases through human communities. This perspective views culture as a machine developed by self-replicating memes, similar to how organisms are survival machines developed by genes.

The critical mind. Humans possess the capacity for critical reflection, allowing us to evaluate ideas based on their truth, validity, and moral propriety. This ability distinguishes us from mere meme-replicating machines, enabling us to shape culture through conscious thought and rational discourse.

4. Laughter and Responsibility: Uniquely Human Traits

Only a being who makes judgments can laugh.

The essence of laughter. Laughter, a uniquely human trait, expresses our ability to accept our inadequacies and connect with others. It involves making judgments, comparing reality with ideals, and sharing amusement with a community.

Responsibility and accountability. Humans hold each other accountable for their actions, creating a world of rights, deserts, and duties. This sense of responsibility distinguishes us from other species, shaping our emotions and influencing our interactions.

Beyond biology. Explaining laughter and responsibility requires understanding complex thought processes, social intentionality, and moral judgments. These uniquely human traits cannot be fully explained by genetics or evolutionary biology alone.

5. The I-You Relation: Morality's Foundation

The moral life depends on something that Darwall calls the “second-person standpoint”—the standpoint of someone whose reasons and conduct are essentially addressed to others.

Second-person perspective. Morality is rooted in the "I-You" relation, where individuals give and receive reasons for action. This second-person standpoint emphasizes accountability, responsibility, and the shared understanding that shapes moral norms.

The social self. Our sense of self is a social product, emerging from our interactions with others. Through language and mutual recognition, we develop first-person awareness and the ability to engage in moral dialogue.

Metaphysical foundation. The "I-You" relation is founded on the metaphysical truth that the self is a social construct. This perspective challenges purely individualistic views of morality, highlighting the importance of interpersonal connections and mutual accountability.

6. Pleasure and Desire: Intentionality in Emotions

Aesthetic pleasures are contemplative—they involve studying an object outside of the self, to which one is giving something (namely, attention and all that flows from it), and not taking, as in the pleasure that comes from drugs and drinks.

Beyond evolutionary explanations. Human pleasures are diverse and complex, ranging from sensory experiences to aesthetic contemplations. Evolutionary explanations often fall short of capturing the intentionality and evaluative dimensions of these pleasures.

Intentionality of pleasure. Many pleasures are tied to our evaluations and relationships, reflecting our values and shaping our interactions with others. Sexual pleasure, for example, is focused on another person, conceived as a subject, not an object.

Decentering the passions. Pornography decenters sexual feelings, prizing excitement free from the "I-You" relation and directing it to a nameless scene of mutual arousal. This depersonalization of desire transforms it into a physical condition rather than an expression of the self.

7. Virtue and Vice: Centering the Self

Such conclusions depend upon using the language of common sense while at the same time canceling the presuppositions on which commonsense terms depend for their meaning.

The moral life. Persons are moral beings, judging their fellows and being judged in turn. The moral life involves navigating the tension between individual freedom and membership in communities.

The role of virtue. Virtue, according to Aristotle, is the ability to pursue what reason recommends, despite conflicting motives. It involves taking responsibility for one's actions and emotions, maintaining a centered self.

Recentering emotions. Through virtue, our actions and emotions remain centered in the self, while vice leads to decentering. The virtuous person is reliable and committed, while the vicious person lacks self-control.

8. Sacred Obligations: Piety and the Unchosen

I would suggest that we understand the person as an emergent entity, rooted in the human being but belonging to another order of explanation than that explored by biology.

Beyond contractarianism. Modern moral and political philosophy often emphasizes individual autonomy and rights, neglecting the unchosen obligations that shape our lives. This perspective fails to fully account for the embodied and situated nature of human agents.

The concept of piety. Piety, a posture of submission and obedience toward unchosen authorities, highlights the importance of unchosen obligations. Filial duties and allegiance to the state are examples of such obligations, shaping our moral landscape.

The sacred and the profane. Rites of passage, such as birth, marriage, and death, are sacred events that transcend everyday life. These rituals connect us to the timeless and the eternal, shaping our understanding of the human condition.

Last updated: March 31, 2025