Persians

1. Persian Origins: From Nomadic Tribes to Empire Builders

The creation of the Persian empire made possible the first significant and continuous contact between East and West and prepared the ground for the later empires of antiquity.

Eurasian Migrations. The Persians emerged from nomadic Aryan tribes migrating onto the Iranian plateau around 1000 BCE. These groups, skilled horsemen and cattle breeders, settled alongside existing populations, including the Elamites, and gradually formed distinct tribal identities.

• Aryans: Proto-Iranians, sharing linguistic roots with Sanskrit
• Medes: Settled in the north, known for horse breeding and tribal alliances
• Persians: Settled in the south, initially influenced by Elamite culture

Elamite Influence. The Elamites, with their sophisticated urban centers like Susa, significantly shaped early Persian culture. The Persians, particularly in Anshan, adopted Elamite administrative practices and artistic styles, laying the foundation for their future empire. This cultural exchange was a key factor in the Persians' rise to power.

Rise of the Medes. The Medes, more warlike than the Persians, formed a powerful kingdom in the north, eventually clashing with the Assyrians. Their military successes and territorial expansion set the stage for the Persians' own imperial ambitions. The Medes' influence was a crucial stepping stone for the Persians' later dominance.

2. Cyrus the Great: A Leader Forged in Legend and Conquest

Cyrus was always Kūrush – ‘humiliator of the enemy’, an interesting moniker for a king whose reputation has been built on justice, tolerance, and kindness.

Birth of a Legend. Cyrus, born to a Persian father and a Median princess, was raised in the nomadic traditions of his people. His early life is shrouded in legend, but his rise to power was marked by military prowess and political acumen. He was a master of both warfare and diplomacy.

Conquest of Media. Cyrus united the Persian tribes and led a revolt against the Median king Astyages, his grandfather. This victory marked the beginning of the Persian empire and established Cyrus as a formidable leader. The Medes were not subjugated but became partners in the new empire.

Expansion and Tolerance. Cyrus conquered Lydia and Babylon, expanding his empire to unprecedented size. He was known for his tolerance towards conquered peoples, allowing them to maintain their customs and religions. This policy of cultural respect was a key factor in the empire's stability and longevity.

• Cyrus Cylinder: A declaration of religious tolerance and respect for local customs
• Liberation of the Jews: Cyrus allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple

3. Cambyses II: The Shadow of a Great Father

The diplomatic gift-giving ceremony was so intrinsic to his understanding of empire that Darius had it represented in painted stone reliefs on the staircases which led up to his massive throne hall at Persepolis, the so-called Apadana.

Inheriting an Empire. Cambyses, son of Cyrus, inherited a vast empire and continued his father's expansionist policies. He conquered Egypt, adding its wealth and resources to the Persian realm. However, his reign is often portrayed negatively in Greek sources.

Conquest of Egypt. Cambyses' campaign in Egypt was swift and decisive, but his rule was marked by alleged cruelty and disrespect for Egyptian customs. This negative portrayal is largely based on Greek accounts, which may be biased.

• The Lost Army: A legendary tale of a Persian army lost in the Sahara Desert
• The Apis Bull: A story of Cambyses' alleged desecration of a sacred Egyptian animal

A Different Perspective. Egyptian sources offer a different view of Cambyses, portraying him as a legitimate pharaoh who respected Egyptian traditions. This highlights the importance of considering multiple perspectives when evaluating historical figures.

• Udjahorresnet: An Egyptian official who served Cambyses and praised his rule

4. Darius I: The Architect of a Multicultural Empire

Ancient Persian imperial inscriptions delight in emphasising the diversity of the empire (although they always privilege Persia at its heart).

Seizing Power. Darius, a distant relative of Cyrus, ascended to the throne after a period of instability and civil war. He consolidated his power through military campaigns and administrative reforms. His rise was marked by a keen understanding of propaganda and the importance of a strong central authority.

Administrative Genius. Darius organized the empire into satrapies, each governed by a local official responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining order. He also established a standardized system of weights and measures, a postal service, and a network of roads, facilitating trade and communication.

• Royal Road: A 2,400-kilometer highway connecting Susa to Sardis
• Aramaic: The lingua franca of the empire, facilitating communication

Multiculturalism. Darius embraced the diversity of his empire, allowing conquered peoples to maintain their languages, religions, and customs. This policy of cultural tolerance was a key factor in the empire's stability and prosperity.

• Vispazanānām: An Old Persian word meaning "multicultural"

5. Xerxes I: Hubris, Humiliation, and the Long Shadow of Greece

On closer examination, Herodotus’ Xerxes is a character of intense complexity. His blustering brutality alternates with childlike sulkiness and unexpected, mawkish, explosions of tears.

The Greek Wars. Xerxes, son of Darius, is best known for his invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. This campaign, though ultimately unsuccessful, had a profound impact on the Greek imagination and shaped Western perceptions of Persia.

• Thermopylae: A legendary battle where a small Greek force held off the Persian army
• Salamis: A decisive naval battle that crippled the Persian fleet

Herodotus' Portrayal. Herodotus' account of Xerxes is complex, depicting him as both a powerful tyrant and a flawed individual. This portrayal has shaped Western views of Xerxes for centuries, often emphasizing his hubris and cruelty.

• The Plane Tree: A story of Xerxes' infatuation with a tree, highlighting his supposed irrationality
• The Weeping King: A scene where Xerxes weeps at the brevity of human life

A More Nuanced View. While Xerxes' invasion of Greece was a major military undertaking, it was just one aspect of his reign. He also oversaw significant building projects and continued his father's administrative policies. The Persian sources, however, are silent on the Greek campaign.

6. Achaemenid Court: Power, Protocol, and the Royal Harem

The Achaemenids were a family of kings. The king was a glorified version of a family father.

Center of Power. The Achaemenid court was the heart of the empire, a place of political intrigue, lavish ceremonies, and strict protocol. The king was the ultimate authority, surrounded by a complex hierarchy of nobles, officials, and servants.

• Royal Audience: A highly ritualized ceremony where subjects presented themselves to the king
• Royal Banquets: Lavish feasts that served as displays of power and wealth

The Royal Harem. The harem was not simply a place of sexual indulgence but a complex social and political institution. It was home to the king's wives, concubines, children, and female relatives, and it played a crucial role in dynastic politics.

• Endogamy: The practice of marrying within the royal family to maintain blood purity
• Royal Mothers: Women who wielded significant influence through their sons

Eunuchs. Eunuchs held important positions at court, serving as advisors, administrators, and bodyguards. Their unique status allowed them to navigate the complex social and political landscape of the court.

• Bagapates: A eunuch who served as a key advisor to the Achaemenid kings

7. Persian Governance: Law, Bureaucracy, and Imperial Reach

The Persian empire opened up, for the first time in history, an international dialogue, for, by and large, the Persians were enlightened despots.

Law and Justice. The Achaemenid kings saw themselves as upholders of law and justice, and they established a system of courts and legal codes to maintain order throughout the empire. The concept of dāta, or law, was central to their governance.

• Dāta: The Old Persian word for law, reflecting the importance of justice
• The Bisitun Inscription: A record of Darius' legal reforms and his commitment to truth

Bureaucratic Efficiency. The Persians developed a sophisticated bureaucracy to manage their vast empire. This included a postal system, a standardized system of weights and measures, and a network of roads.

• Persepolis Fortification Tablets: A vast archive of administrative documents
• Satraps: Regional governors responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining order

Imperial Reach. The Persian empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to India, encompassing a diverse range of cultures and peoples. The Persians were able to maintain control over this vast territory through a combination of military power, diplomacy, and administrative efficiency.

• Royal Roads: A network of highways that facilitated communication and trade
• Tribute System: A system of taxation that brought wealth to the empire

8. Religion and Ritual: Ahuramazda, Magi, and the Zoroastrian Influence

The Persian Version of history projects its own variety of historical spin.

Ahuramazda. The Achaemenid kings worshipped Ahuramazda, the supreme god of the Persian pantheon. They saw themselves as his chosen representatives on earth, tasked with upholding truth and justice.

• Ahuramazda: The Wise Lord, the creator of all good things
• Arta: The concept of truth, order, and justice

The Magi. The Magi were a priestly class who played a key role in Persian religious life. They performed rituals, interpreted omens, and served as advisors to the king.

• Ziyan: Elamite word for temple or shrine
• Fire Altars: Sacred places where the Magi performed rituals

Zoroastrianism. While the Achaemenids were not strictly Zoroastrian, their religious beliefs were influenced by the teachings of Zarathustra. The concept of a cosmic struggle between good and evil was central to their worldview.

• Zarathustra: The prophet who founded Zoroastrianism
• Avesta: The sacred texts of Zoroastrianism

9. The Fall of Persia: Internal Strife and the Macedonian Onslaught

The question which inevitably arises of these facts, therefore, is not why did the Persian empire come to an end, but rather how did it stay successful for so long?

Succession Struggles. The Achaemenid dynasty was plagued by internal conflicts and succession struggles. These conflicts often led to violence and instability, weakening the empire from within.

• Artaxerxes III: A king who came to power through regicide and fratricide
• Parysatis: A powerful queen mother who played a key role in court politics

The Rise of Macedon. The rise of Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army posed a major threat to the Persian empire. Alexander's military genius and his determination to conquer Persia led to the empire's downfall.

• Battle of Granicus: Alexander's first major victory over the Persians
• Battle of Issus: A decisive battle where Alexander defeated Darius III

The Death of Darius. Darius III, the last Achaemenid king, was murdered by his own satraps as he fled from Alexander. This marked the end of the Achaemenid dynasty and the beginning of a new era in Persian history.

• Bessus: The satrap who murdered Darius III
• Gaugamela: The final battle between Alexander and Darius

10. Legacy of Persia: Echoes in Iranian Identity and Beyond

The Persian empire never underwent a slow process of decline and eventual collapse, nor did it follow any familiar ‘Rise and Fall’ scenario that might be construed for other empires.

Sasanian Revival. The Sasanian dynasty, which ruled Persia from the 3rd to the 7th centuries CE, consciously sought to emulate the Achaemenids. They adopted Achaemenid symbols and traditions, presenting themselves as the rightful heirs to the Persian empire.

• Naqsh-i Rustam: A site where Sasanian kings carved reliefs alongside Achaemenid tombs

Epic Storytelling. The Achaemenid kings became legendary figures in Iranian epic poetry, particularly in the Shahnameh, or Book of Kings. These stories often blended historical fact with myth and legend, creating a powerful sense of national identity.

• Shahnameh: A Persian epic poem that recounts the history of Iran

Modern Iran. The Achaemenid empire continues to be a source of pride and inspiration for many Iranians. The ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae are popular tourist destinations, and the legacy of Cyrus the Great is often invoked in political discourse.

• Reza Shah: The Pahlavi ruler who promoted the use of "Iran" over "Persia"
• Orientalism: The Western appropriation of Persian history and culture

Last updated: January 23, 2025