Raiders and Rebels

1. The Golden Age of Piracy was a unique global conflict.

For thirty-three years—roughly between 1692 and 1725—these pirate raiders, declared enemies of the whole world, terrorized the sea-lanes, disrupted commerce, and threatened the advance of a nascent western imperialism, while fighting off all efforts to exterminate them.

An unprecedented era. The period from the 1690s to the 1720s saw the most intense outbreak of seaborne banditry in history. Thousands of daring men and women ranged the seas, plundering merchant fleets and challenging the established maritime powers. This wasn't just scattered crime; it was, in effect, a sustained war waged by a loose confederacy of outlaws against the "civilized world."

Global reach. Pirates operated across millions of square miles of ocean, from the Indian Ocean and Red Sea to the Caribbean and the coasts of North America and Africa. They disrupted vital trade routes, particularly those of the British East India Company and the Spanish treasure fleets, impacting global commerce and colonial expansion. Their actions forced governments and trading companies to take unprecedented measures.

More than just greed. While the lure of immense wealth was a primary driver, many pirates also sought freedom from oppressive authority and vengeance against a brutal society. They evolved their own unique culture, rules, and style of life, seeing themselves as rebels fighting for liberty in an age where it was largely denied to the poor and common sailor.

2. Brutal conditions at sea fueled the pirate rebellion.

Aboard ship the ordinary sailor had no respite, no appeal, no sanctuary. He was, except in name, no better than a slave.

A sailor's harsh reality. Life for ordinary seamen on merchant vessels or in the Royal Navy was incredibly difficult and unjust. Sailors endured abysmal food, cramped and unsanitary living conditions, constant danger from storms and disease, and meager pay. They were often subject to sadistic officers who wielded absolute power, with punishments ranging from severe floggings to maiming or death for minor infractions.

Lack of opportunity. Under the rigid class system of the era, there was little chance for a common sailor to rise in rank or share meaningfully in the wealth his labor created. Prize money from captured enemy ships often went disproportionately to officers and owners, leaving the crew with little despite facing the greatest danger. This systemic exploitation bred deep resentment and a sense of powerlessness.

Forced service. The hated practice of impressment, where men were forcibly abducted into naval service, further fueled discontent. Sailors feared impressment not only for the harsh discipline but also because it meant abandoning their families, who often faced starvation without their support. For many, turning pirate became the ultimate act of defiance and escape from this oppressive system.

3. Economic policies and corrupt officials enabled the pirate trade.

If the selling of privateer loot was against the king’s law, it was not against the law of the sea, or the law of supply and demand.

Navigation Acts' unintended consequence. England's Navigation Acts, designed to monopolize colonial trade, restricted colonists to buying expensive English goods and selling their products at low prices only to England. This created a black market demand for cheaper, often luxurious, goods obtained through privateering or piracy. Colonial merchants and consumers eagerly participated in this illicit trade.

Colonial complicity. Merchants in ports like New York, Boston, and Charleston actively financed pirate voyages, supplied pirate ships, and served as brokers for pirate plunder. They saw it as a lucrative way to circumvent the Navigation Acts and enrich themselves. This economic support provided pirates with essential resources and markets for their stolen goods.

Corrupt governors. Many colonial governors were easily bribed to ignore pirate activities, sell privateering commissions to known pirates, and allow pirate ships to unload contraband without interference. Figures like Governor Benjamin Fletcher of New York were notorious for their open collusion with pirates, providing them with protection and legitimacy in exchange for a share of the spoils.

4. Early pioneers like Tew and Every ignited the outbreak.

If it was Captain Thomas Tew, the Newport privateer, who fired the opening shots in the pirate war, it was Henry Every, the Arch-Pirate, who touched off the first full broadside.

Tew's pathfinding voyage. Captain Thomas Tew, a respected Rhode Island privateer, embarked on a seemingly legitimate mission in 1692 but, with his crew's consent, diverted to the Indian Ocean. His capture of a rich Mogul ship proved the immense wealth available in the East and the vulnerability of its shipping, sparking widespread interest among other seamen and merchants.

Every's audacious strike. Henry Every, a cunning former slave trader and mate, led a mutiny aboard the Charles II in 1694, renaming her the Fancy. He sailed to the Red Sea and, in 1695, captured the Gang-I-Sawai, the Great Mogul's largest ship, laden with treasure and pilgrims. This single act yielded enormous wealth and, more importantly, enraged the Mogul, who blamed the English, forcing the East India Company to demand action.

Inspiring a rush. The tales of Tew's success and Every's incredible haul spread like wildfire, confirming the potential for immense riches in the East. This ignited a "rush" of privateers, mutineers, and deserters towards the Indian Ocean, transforming sporadic piracy into a major global phenomenon. Their exploits became legendary, fueling the dreams of thousands of discontented sailors.

5. Madagascar became the first pirate stronghold and "outlaw nation."

Madagascar was unclaimed territory: pleasant, impregnable, and—above all—lawless.

An ideal sanctuary. The large island of Madagascar, off the coast of Africa, offered numerous sheltered harbors, abundant fresh water and provisions, and was strategically located near the lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes. Crucially, it was not effectively controlled by any European power or unified native authority, making it a perfect refuge for outlaws.

Establishing a base. Following Tew and Every, pirates flocked to Madagascar and nearby islands like St. Mary's. Figures like Adam Baldridge established trading posts and fortified settlements, providing pirates with supplies, repairs, and a market for their plunder. These enclaves became de facto pirate bases, too remote and often too strong for European navies to challenge effectively in the 1690s.

Seeds of a republic. The concentration of pirates in Madagascar fostered a sense of community and shared identity. They developed common rules ("ship's articles"), showed loyalty to the brotherhood over national ties, and even adopted symbols like the red and later the black flag (Jolly Roger). Some contemporaries speculated that these settlements could evolve into a permanent "outlaw nation" or "republic of rogues."

6. Pirate life offered a radical, albeit brutal, form of freedom and democracy.

In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, there was only one true democracy on earth: the pirate brotherhood forged in Madagascar.

Defiance of authority. Pirates rejected the rigid hierarchy and cruel discipline of conventional maritime service. They elected their captains and officers, who could be deposed by crew vote. Important decisions were often made by a majority vote of the entire crew, giving every man (and sometimes woman) a voice, regardless of background.

Equality and shared wealth. Pirate articles typically stipulated a relatively fair distribution of plunder, with shares allocated based on rank but ensuring even the lowest-ranking sailor received a significant portion. Unlike "honest" ships, there were few privileges for officers; all ate together and shared the same living conditions. This radical equality was a powerful draw for men from oppressed backgrounds.

Unrestrained liberty. Pirate life meant freedom from laws, customs, and social constraints. This often manifested in excessive drinking, gambling, and sexual license. While chaotic and often brutal, this unrestrained liberty was highly prized. As Bartholomew Roberts famously put it, "A merry life and a short one shall be my motto."

7. War and peace cycles fueled pirate recruitment and relocation.

Suddenly the Madagascar pirates, almost extinguished a year earlier, were back in business, this time as lawful brigands of the queen of England.

Privateering's double edge. The practice of commissioning privateers during wartime provided employment and training for thousands of seamen in sea raiding. However, when wars ended, these experienced raiders were suddenly unemployed. With legitimate opportunities scarce and the harsh conditions of merchant or naval service unappealing, many turned to piracy, applying their wartime skills to peacetime plunder.

The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713). This major European conflict saw a massive increase in privateering against French and Spanish shipping. When the war ended, thousands of seasoned privateers were again cast adrift. Many of these veterans, unwilling to return to conventional service, migrated to the Caribbean, particularly the Bahamas, seeking new opportunities "on the account."

Shifting theaters. The end of King William's War (1689-1697) initially spurred the rush to the Indian Ocean. The subsequent suppression efforts and the War of Spanish Succession then shifted the focus back to the Atlantic and Caribbean. The end of the latter war in 1713 directly led to the explosion of piracy in the West Indies, as a new generation of privateer veterans sought their fortunes.

8. Nassau in the Bahamas became the infamous Republic of Rogues.

The town of Nassau, once a torpid waterside hamlet, had by 1716 become the capital city of the reborn pirate confederacy.

A new haven. Following the end of the War of Spanish Succession, the Bahamas, particularly New Providence Island and its harbor at Nassau, became the primary base for the new wave of pirates. The islands offered strategic location, numerous hiding places, and, crucially, a power vacuum after being largely abandoned by their English proprietors.

Capital of chaos. Nassau transformed into a chaotic shantytown, a hub of drinking, gambling, and illicit trade. Thousands of pirates congregated there, forming a loose "republic" governed by pirate customs and a council of captains. It became the operational center for raids throughout the Caribbean and along the American coast.

Threat to trade. From Nassau, pirates like Charles Vane, Blackbeard, and others launched devastating attacks on shipping, severely disrupting commerce from New England to the Spanish Main. Their numbers and boldness made them a formidable force, prompting desperate appeals from colonial governors and merchants for intervention.

9. Iconic figures like Blackbeard and Roberts defined the era's terror.

He was a monster.

Blackbeard's reign of terror. Edward Teach, or Thatch, known as Blackbeard, cultivated a fearsome image with his massive beard, smoking matches, and arsenal of weapons. Operating primarily off the American coast and in the Caribbean, he was known for his unpredictable cruelty and audacious acts, such as blockading Charleston harbor. His legend became synonymous with pirate terror.

Roberts's meteoric rise. Bartholomew Roberts, or Black Bart, was perhaps the most successful and enigmatic pirate captain. A teetotaler and devout man who became a pirate by circumstance, he quickly imposed discipline and order on his crews. Known for his flamboyant dress and daring raids, he captured hundreds of ships across the Atlantic, from Brazil to Newfoundland and the African coast, becoming the most wanted pirate of his time.

Other notable figures. The era produced many other memorable pirates, including the gentleman pirate Stede Bonnet, the cunning Charles Vane, the romantic duo Anne Bonny and Mary Read, and the brutal Edward Low. Their diverse personalities and exploits contributed to the rich tapestry of the Golden Age of Piracy.

10. Woodes Rogers led the decisive counterstrike against the pirate republic.

No one looked less like what he was—a genuine hero—than Woodes Rogers.

A capable leader. Woodes Rogers, a respected circumnavigator and former privateer, was appointed Governor of the Bahamas in 1718 by a syndicate determined to reclaim the islands from pirates. Despite his unassuming appearance, Rogers possessed immense courage, determination, and a shrewd understanding of seafaring men.

Strategy of mixed force and diplomacy. Rogers arrived in Nassau with limited military force but a royal pardon for pirates who surrendered. He combined a show of authority (rebuilding the fort, establishing government) with tolerance for pardoned pirates' lifestyles (within limits) and recruitment of former pirates like Ben Hornigold into his service. This divided the pirate community and undermined their unity.

Reclaiming Nassau. Despite facing challenges like disease, desertion, and threats from pirates like Charles Vane, Rogers steadily consolidated his control. His successful defense of Nassau against a Spanish invasion in 1720, using his rebuilt fort and a mix of soldiers and pardoned pirates, cemented his authority and effectively ended Nassau's role as a pirate haven.

11. The final battles shifted to the treacherous African coast.

And it was here that a dwindling number of pirate captains—as fierce and as resourceful as any who preceded them—fought the final battles of the pirate war on the world.

Seeking new grounds. With Nassau closed and the Caribbean becoming increasingly dangerous due to naval patrols, many remaining pirates, including Bartholomew Roberts and Edward Low, shifted their operations to the Guinea Coast of Africa. This region offered lucrative slave trade targets, remote hideouts in swamps and deltas, and independent traders willing to deal in contraband.

Vulnerability of trading posts. The European trading forts along the Guinea Coast, while fortified, were often isolated and dependent on the goodwill of local African rulers. Pirates could exploit rivalries between European companies and African tribes, using cunning and force to raid forts and capture ships anchored offshore.

Last stands. The African coast became the site of the final major confrontations between pirates and the Royal Navy. Figures like Roberts and Low continued their brutal careers, but faced relentless pursuit. The battles here, often fought in challenging coastal waters, marked the twilight of the Golden Age.

12. Combined pressures and changing times brought the pirate war to an end.

The pirate war against the world was over.

Multi-faceted suppression. The decline of piracy after 1725 was not due to a single cause but a combination of factors:

• Loss of bases: The successful reclamation of Nassau and the dispersal of pirates from Madagascar deprived them of essential sanctuaries.
• Naval pressure: Increased and more effective patrolling by the Royal Navy made it harder for pirates to operate and escape.
• Legal changes: New laws made it easier to prosecute pirates in the colonies and punished those who aided them.
• Economic shifts: The crackdown on colonial pirate brokers reduced markets for plunder.
• Improved sailor conditions: While still harsh, some improvements in the treatment and prospects of ordinary seamen reduced the incentive to turn pirate.

Changing social landscape. More broadly, the emerging ideas of individual rights and social justice, though slow to take hold, began to challenge the oppressive systems that had driven many men to piracy. As society gradually became less tyrannical, the radical freedom offered by the pirate life lost some of its unique appeal.

End of an era. By the late 1720s, the great pirate captains were dead or gone, their bases lost, and their economic support diminished. While piracy continued in various forms, the era of the large, organized, and politically significant pirate confederacy was over, replaced by smaller-scale, less romantic criminal activity at sea.

Last updated: June 1, 2025