Shakespeare's Freedom (The Rice University Campbell Lectures)

1. Shakespeare embodies human freedom while exploring its limits

Shakespeare as a writer is the embodiment of human freedom.

Freedom and limits. Shakespeare's works exemplify the pinnacle of artistic freedom, showcasing his ability to craft language, characters, and ideas with seemingly boundless creativity. However, this freedom is not without its constraints. Shakespeare consistently explores the limits that hedge about claims of the absolute, whether in terms of power, love, or morality.

Challenging absolutes. Throughout his career, Shakespeare directed his formidable intelligence towards questioning absolutes of any kind. His plays and poems frequently depict the failure of absolutist claims, whether religious, political, or personal. This exploration of limits serves as the enabling condition for Shakespeare's particular brand of freedom.

Examples of challenged absolutes:

• Divine right of kings
• Absolute love
• Unquestionable faith
• Unlimited power

2. Beauty in Shakespeare transcends conventional norms

Shakespeare's most intense celebrations of beauty repeatedly violate the featurelessness that is his cultural ideal.

Redefining beauty. Shakespeare's portrayal of beauty often deviates from the Renaissance ideal of featureless perfection. His most alluring and memorable characters achieve individuation through their distance from conventional expectations. This departure from the norm is the price of true individuation in Shakespeare's works.

Embracing imperfection. Shakespeare finds beauty in the singular, the marked, and even the supposedly ugly. Characters like the Dark Lady of the sonnets, Cleopatra, and Othello embody a beauty that is inseparable from their distinctive features and supposed flaws.

Examples of unconventional beauty:

• The Dark Lady's dark complexion
• Cleopatra's "wrinkled deep in time" appearance
• Othello's otherness as a Moor

3. Shakespeare's villains embody the dark side of autonomy

"As if a man were author of himself / And knew no other kin."

Villainous freedom. Shakespeare's most disturbing villains, such as Richard III, Edmund, and Iago, embody a dark vision of autonomy. They share a desire for liberation from social constraints and a willingness to use others for their own gain. This pursuit of absolute freedom often leads to destruction and tragedy.

Limits of villainy. Even as Shakespeare explores the terrifying possibilities of unchecked autonomy through his villains, he also reveals the ultimate limits of their freedom. Characters like Shylock and Iago, despite their attempts to live by their own laws, are ultimately constrained by the societies they inhabit and their own human nature.

Key villainous traits:

• Rejection of social norms
• Manipulation of others
• Pursuit of personal gain at any cost

4. The ethics of authority are deeply compromised in Shakespeare's works

Shakespeare's central perception of governance: The actions of those in power have consequences, long-term, inescapable, and impossible to control.

Flawed leadership. Shakespeare consistently portrays rulers and those in positions of authority as deeply flawed. His plays explore the ethical ambiguities and compromises inherent in wielding power. Even seemingly virtuous characters struggle with the moral implications of their actions when placed in positions of authority.

Consequences of power. A key theme in Shakespeare's works is the idea that those in power cannot escape the consequences of their actions. The plays often depict a cycle of violence and retribution stemming from the decisions of rulers. This portrayal challenges the notion of absolute authority and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all members of society.

Examples of compromised authority:

• Duke Vincentio's abdication and manipulation in "Measure for Measure"
• Macbeth's descent into tyranny
• King Lear's disastrous division of his kingdom

5. Shakespeare grapples with the concept of aesthetic autonomy

Shakespeare may nonetheless have thought that radical freedom was possible for a made object, that is, for a poem or a play.

Artistic freedom. Shakespeare explores the idea of aesthetic autonomy throughout his works, considering the possibility that art might exist in a realm separate from the constraints of the natural world. This concept is most explicitly addressed in works like "A Midsummer Night's Dream," where the nature of art and imagination is directly questioned.

Limits of autonomy. While Shakespeare entertains the idea of artistic freedom, he also recognizes its limitations. His later works, particularly "The Tempest," suggest a growing skepticism about claims of absolute artistic autonomy. Shakespeare ultimately seems to view art as existing in a complex relationship with society, neither fully free nor entirely constrained.

Key aspects of Shakespeare's view on aesthetic autonomy:

• Art as a dream-like realm
• The social contract between artist and audience
• The ethical implications of artistic creation

6. Hatred in Shakespeare has its limits, even for villains

Faced with the demand of such absolute, suicidal hatred, Shylock flinches: "Give me my principal, and let me go."

Boundaries of hatred. Even Shakespeare's most hateful characters, such as Shylock in "The Merchant of Venice," ultimately reach the limits of their animosity. When faced with the opportunity for absolute revenge at the cost of their own destruction, these characters often pull back, revealing the boundaries of human hatred.

Humanity in villainy. By showing the limits of hatred in his villains, Shakespeare emphasizes their humanity. This complexity adds depth to his antagonists and challenges simplistic notions of good and evil. Even characters driven by intense hatred are shown to have vulnerabilities and moments of hesitation.

Examples of limited hatred:

• Shylock's refusal to sacrifice himself for revenge
• Iago's unexplained silence at the end of "Othello"
• Edmund's deathbed attempt at redemption in "King Lear"

7. Shakespeare's art balances between freedom and social constraints

Shakespeare's solution was to end his great tragedy with an ambiguous, exceedingly reluctant accession to rule and then to turn the closing words away from any assumption of authority and toward the necessity, under immense pressure, of emotional honesty.

Artistic negotiation. Shakespeare's work consistently navigates the tension between artistic freedom and social constraints. His plays and poems often push boundaries while simultaneously acknowledging the necessity of operating within certain societal norms. This delicate balance is key to understanding Shakespeare's approach to his craft.

Social agreement. Shakespeare recognized that artistic freedom depends on a social agreement, a willingness on the part of the audience and authorities to permit artistic expression. His works often include gestures towards this agreement, such as epilogues asking for the audience's pardon or indulgence.

Strategies for balancing freedom and constraint:

• Use of ambiguity and multiple interpretations
• Incorporation of social commentary within entertaining narratives
• Appeals to audience understanding and forgiveness

8. The dream of autonomy is ultimately unattainable for Shakespeare's characters

Shakespeare understood very well that this attempt is doomed.

Illusion of independence. Throughout his works, Shakespeare explores characters who attempt to achieve complete autonomy, whether through political power, social isolation, or rejection of societal norms. However, these attempts are consistently shown to be futile or destructive.

Interconnectedness of humanity. Shakespeare's plays ultimately emphasize the interconnected nature of human existence. Even those characters who most strongly assert their independence, such as Coriolanus or King Lear, are eventually forced to confront their reliance on others and their place within a larger social context.

Failed attempts at autonomy:

• Coriolanus's exile and return
• King Lear's abdication and subsequent dependence
• Macbeth's isolation in tyranny

Last updated: September 3, 2024