Spheres of Justice

1. Justice Requires Understanding Social Goods

All distributions are just or unjust relative to the social meanings of the goods at stake.

Social Meanings. Distributive justice isn't about abstract principles but about understanding the shared meanings we give to social goods. These meanings, shaped by history and culture, dictate how goods should be distributed. For example, healthcare is viewed as a right in some societies, while in others, it's treated as a commodity.

Goods are Socially Constructed. Goods aren't just physical objects; they are imbued with social significance. A wedding ring, for instance, is more than just a piece of metal; it symbolizes commitment and love. Understanding these meanings is crucial for determining just distribution.

Rejecting Universalism. Walzer rejects the idea of a single, universal system of distributive justice. Instead, he argues for a pluralistic approach that respects the diverse meanings of goods in different societies. This means that what is considered just in one society may not be just in another.

2. Equality Demands Autonomy of Distributive Spheres

When meanings are distinct, distributions must be autonomous.

Complex Equality. True equality isn't about everyone having the same amount of everything. It's about preventing dominance, where one good (like wealth) can be converted into power in other spheres (like politics or healthcare). This requires each social good to have its own sphere of distribution.

Preventing Tyranny. When one good dominates, it leads to tyranny. For example, if wealth can buy political influence, the wealthy will control the government. To prevent this, each sphere must be autonomous, with its own criteria for distribution.

Examples of Spheres:

• Money: Governed by market principles
• Political Office: Governed by democratic elections
• Education: Governed by merit and qualification

3. Membership is the Foundational Social Good

The primary good that we distribute to one another is membership in some human community.

Membership as a Prerequisite. Before we can even talk about distributing other goods, we must first determine who is included in the community. Membership is the key that unlocks access to security, welfare, and other social benefits.

The Danger of Statelessness. Those without membership are stateless, vulnerable, and unprotected. They lack the basic rights and guarantees that members of a political community enjoy.

Controlling Immigration. Walzer argues that political communities have a right to control their borders and decide who to admit. This right is essential for maintaining the community's character and ensuring the well-being of its members.

4. Communities Balance Self-Determination and Mutual Aid

As for hospitality, that rule does not bind further than for some present occasion, not for continual residence.

Limits to Open Borders. While communities have a right to self-determination, this right is not absolute. They also have a responsibility to provide mutual aid to those in need.

Mutual Aid. The principle of mutual aid suggests that we have a duty to assist strangers in dire circumstances, especially when the cost to ourselves is relatively low. This principle can justify admitting some immigrants, particularly refugees.

Balancing Act. Communities must balance their own interests with their obligations to humanity. This requires careful consideration of factors like population density, available resources, and the needs of potential immigrants.

5. Citizenship Entails Inclusion and Political Voice

No democratic state can tolerate the establishment of a fixed status between citizen and foreigner.

Resident Aliens. States often rely on foreign workers to fill essential jobs. However, these "guest workers" should not be treated as second-class citizens.

The Right to Naturalization. Resident aliens who contribute to society and abide by its laws should have the opportunity to become citizens. Denying them this right creates a permanent underclass and undermines democratic principles.

Political Participation. Citizenship should grant full political rights, including the right to vote and participate in the political process. This ensures that all members of the community have a voice in shaping its future.

6. Security and Welfare are Communal Obligations

How shall men love their country, if it is nothing more for them than for strangers, and bestows on them only that which it can refuse to none?

Social Contract. Membership in a political community entails a social contract, where members agree to provide for one another's security and welfare. This is not just a matter of charity but a fundamental obligation of citizenship.

Beyond Basic Needs. Communal provision should extend beyond basic necessities to include goods that enable citizens to participate fully in social and political life. This might include education, healthcare, and access to cultural activities.

Political Choices. The specific forms and extent of communal provision are matters for political debate and democratic decision-making. There is no single, universally correct answer, but the goal should be to create a society where all members can thrive.

7. Money's Reach Must Be Deliberately Limited

Money is inappropriate in the sphere of ecclesiastical office; it is an intrusion from another sphere.

Neutral Medium. Money is supposed to be a neutral medium of exchange, facilitating transactions without distorting values. However, in practice, money often becomes a dominant good, corrupting other spheres.

Blocked Exchanges. To prevent this, we must establish "blocked exchanges," where money cannot be used to purchase certain goods, such as political power, criminal justice, or human beings. This protects the integrity of those spheres.

The Market's Proper Place. The market has a legitimate role in distributing commodities and services, but it should not be allowed to dominate all aspects of social life. We must carefully define the boundaries of the market to prevent its corrosive effects.

8. Offices Should Be Distributed Based on Relevant Qualifications

No social good x should be distributed to men and women who possess some other good y merely because they possess y and without regard to the meaning of x.

Meritocracy. Offices, positions of authority and responsibility, should be awarded based on qualifications directly relevant to the job. This ensures competence and prevents favoritism.

Beyond Simple Equality. While equal opportunity is important, it's not enough. We must also ensure that the selection process is fair and that the chosen candidate is truly the best person for the job.

The Limits of Meritocracy. Even a well-designed meritocracy can be problematic if it leads to a concentration of power in the hands of a select few. We must also consider the broader social implications of our selection processes.

9. Hard Work Requires Equitable Distribution and Recognition

To each according to his needs is generally taken as the distributive half of Marx’s famous maxim: we are to distribute the wealth of the community so as to meet the necessities of its members.

Socially Necessary. Some jobs are inherently unpleasant or dangerous, yet they are essential for the functioning of society. These jobs should not be relegated to a permanent underclass.

Sharing the Burden. One solution is to share the burden of hard work through conscription or rotation. Another is to provide adequate compensation and recognition to those who perform these jobs.

Transforming the Work. Ultimately, the goal should be to transform hard work, making it less unpleasant and more rewarding. This might involve automation, improved working conditions, or a greater sense of purpose.

10. Kinship and Love Exist Beyond Distributive Justice

The nature of tyranny is to desire power over the whole world and outside its own sphere.

Special Relationships. Kinship ties and sexual relations are governed by different principles than those of distributive justice. Love, affection, and loyalty cannot be bought or coerced.

Protecting the Sphere. We must defend the autonomy of kinship and love against intrusions from other spheres, such as the market or the state. This means resisting attempts to commodify or politicize these relationships.

The Limits of Regulation. While we can regulate certain aspects of family life (such as inheritance), we should be wary of interfering too deeply in personal matters. The goal should be to protect individual freedom and autonomy.

11. Public Honor Should Reflect Genuine Desert

We owe different duties to different qualities: love is the proper response to charm, fear to strength, and belief to learning.

Beyond Simple Equality. While all citizens are entitled to equal respect, not all are entitled to equal honor. Public honor should be reserved for those who have made exceptional contributions to society.

Objective Standards. The distribution of public honor should be based on objective standards, not on political favoritism or social connections. This requires careful judgment and a commitment to fairness.

The Value of Recognition. Public honor serves an important function in society, recognizing and celebrating excellence. It also inspires others to strive for greatness and contribute to the common good.

12. Political Power Must Be Limited and Widely Shared

Tyranny is the wish to obtain by one means what can only be had by another.

Sovereignty. Political power is essential for maintaining order and protecting the rights of citizens. However, it must be limited and constrained to prevent tyranny.

Checks and Balances. A well-designed political system includes checks and balances to prevent any one individual or group from accumulating too much power. This might involve dividing power among different branches of government or establishing constitutional limits on state action.

Citizen Participation. Ultimately, the best safeguard against tyranny is an active and engaged citizenry. Citizens must be vigilant in defending their rights and holding their leaders accountable.

Last updated: April 23, 2025