The Beautiful Tree

1. Pre-British India had a widespread, sophisticated education system.

...the British administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were, began to root them out.

Ubiquitous learning. Before British rule, India boasted a decentralized yet pervasive education system. Observers like Thomas Munro noted "every village had a school," indicating education's integral role in community life. This wasn't limited to a few elite institutions; it permeated society, suggesting a broad commitment to learning.

Beyond basic literacy. The system encompassed elementary schools teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as institutions of higher learning focused on theology, law, astronomy, and medicine. This multi-tiered structure catered to diverse needs, from basic skills for commerce and agriculture to advanced scholarship. The curriculum extended beyond rote learning, emphasizing practical application and critical thinking.

Centers of excellence. Universities like Taxila and Nalanda, while well-known, represent only a fraction of the educational landscape. Navadweep, for example, served as a prominent center for advanced studies as late as the 18th century, demonstrating the continued vitality of indigenous learning. These institutions attracted scholars from across India and beyond, fostering intellectual exchange and innovation.

2. British policies systematically undermined indigenous education.

They scratched the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that, and the beautiful tree perished.

Deliberate destruction. British administrators, rather than building upon existing structures, actively dismantled them. This wasn't necessarily malicious, but stemmed from a fundamental misunderstanding and undervaluing of indigenous systems. The imposition of European models, often ill-suited to local contexts, further marginalized traditional institutions.

Fiscal strangulation. A key tactic was the centralization of revenue, diverting funds that had traditionally supported education. This financial squeeze crippled indigenous schools, leading to their decay and eventual collapse. The imposition of new taxes and assessments further burdened communities, reducing their capacity to support local learning.

Cultural devaluation. British officials often denigrated Indian knowledge and scholarship, viewing it as inferior to Western learning. This cultural bias justified the imposition of European curricula and teaching methods, further eroding the prestige and relevance of indigenous education. Figures like Macaulay openly dismissed Indian learning, advocating for its replacement with Western models.

3. Education was accessible across caste lines, challenging historical assumptions.

It was the groups termed Soodras, and the castes considered below them who predominated in the thousands of the then still-existing schools in practically each of these areas.

Challenging stereotypes. Contrary to popular belief, education wasn't limited to the upper castes. Data from the Madras Presidency reveals a significant proportion of students from Shudra and "other castes" (often considered below the Shudra varna) in schools. This suggests a more egalitarian system than previously acknowledged.

Regional variations. While the Tamil-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency showed the most pronounced representation of lower castes, other regions also demonstrated significant participation. Malayalam-speaking Malabar, for instance, had a substantial Muslim student population, further diversifying the educational landscape. These variations highlight the complexity of Indian society and the need to avoid generalizations.

Home-based learning. The absence of girls in schools was often attributed to their education taking place at home. While difficult to quantify, this suggests that learning extended beyond formal institutions, with families playing a crucial role in transmitting knowledge and skills. The collector of Madras reported a significant number of students receiving tuition at home, further emphasizing the importance of non-institutional education.

4. Revenue systems supported education, linking community wealth to learning.

...substantial proportions of revenue had long been assigned for the performance of a multiplicity of public purposes...

Decentralized funding. Pre-British India had sophisticated fiscal arrangements that allocated revenue for public purposes, including education. These systems, often based on land revenue assignments, ensured that communities had the resources to support local schools and scholars. This decentralized approach fostered local ownership and accountability.

Breakdown of the system. The British, through their policies of revenue centralization, disrupted these traditional funding mechanisms. By consolidating control over revenue collection, they diverted funds away from local institutions, including schools. This financial strangulation contributed significantly to the decline of indigenous education.

Categories of revenue allocation. The "Chakeran Zemin" and "Bazee Zemin" categories in Bengal and Bihar records illustrate the extent of revenue allocated for public services. "Chakeran Zemin" supported administrative and economic activities, while "Bazee Zemin" funded religious and charitable causes, including education. These allocations demonstrate the pre-British state's commitment to social welfare.

5. The content of indigenous education was rich, diverse, and locally relevant.

The content of studies was better than what was then studied in England.

Beyond the three Rs. While reading, writing, and arithmetic were foundational, the curriculum extended to literature, philosophy, law, astronomy, and medicine. The specific subjects taught varied depending on the region, community, and the type of institution. This diversity reflected the needs and values of local societies.

Practical skills. Education wasn't solely academic; it also included practical skills relevant to agriculture, commerce, and various crafts. This emphasis on vocational training ensured that graduates were well-prepared to contribute to their communities. The collector of Rajahmundry provided a list of 43 books used in Telugu schools, showcasing the breadth of available learning materials.

Moral and ethical development. Education wasn't just about acquiring knowledge; it also aimed to cultivate character and instill moral values. Many schools incorporated religious texts and ethical teachings into their curriculum, shaping students' behavior and promoting social harmony. The use of "Shloga" in Samscred verse served not only as examples of language but also contained moral maxims.

6. British officials debated the nature and impact of their educational policies.

...the information sent, while lacking in certain respects, was ‘yet sufficiently complete to show, that in providing the means of a better education for the natives, little aid is to be expected from the instruments of education which already exist.’

Conflicting perspectives. British officials held diverse views on indigenous education. Some, like Thomas Munro, recognized its value and advocated for its preservation. Others, like James Mill, dismissed it as inferior and called for its replacement with Western models. This internal debate shaped the direction of British educational policy.

The "filtration theory." The British initially focused on educating the upper classes, believing that knowledge would trickle down to the masses. This approach, however, neglected the existing indigenous system and failed to address the needs of the majority of the population. The Sadler Commission pointed out that "no attempt was made to develop these schools."

Wilberforce's vision. William Wilberforce advocated for the "circulation of the holy scriptures in the native languages" with a view to the general diffusion of Christianity, so that the Indians "would, in short become Christians, without knowing it." This evangelical agenda further complicated the educational landscape.

7. Statistical comparisons reveal a decline in educational access under British rule.

...the proportion of those in educational institutions at the end of the nineteenth century was still no larger than the proportions estimated by Thomas Munro of the number attending the institutions of the decaying indigenous system of the Madras Presidency in 1822-25.

Quantifiable decline. Despite British claims of progress, statistical data suggests a decline in educational access under their rule. Comparisons between the Madras Presidency in the 1820s and the late 19th century show that the proportion of males in schools remained stagnant or even decreased. This challenges the narrative of continuous improvement.

Leitner's findings. G.W. Leitner's survey of indigenous education in the Punjab further supports this trend. His research revealed a significant decrease in the number of students attending schools after the annexation, highlighting the detrimental impact of British policies. Leitner's researches showed that at the time of the annexation of the Panjab, the lowest computation gave ‘3,30,000 pupils in the schools of the various denominations who were acquainted with reading, writing and some method of computation.’

The Madras Presidency. According to the 1879-80 Report of the Director of Public Instruction for the Madras Presidency, the total number of male scholars was 2,38,960. Using the same computation as those applied in 1822-25 (i.e. one-ninth of the total population treated as of school-going age), the proportion of this age group in schools thus turns out to be 12.58%. This proportion in the decayed educational situation of 1822-25 was put at one-fourth, i.e. at 25%.

8. Understanding pre-British systems is crucial for modern educational reform.

An understanding of what existed and of the processes which created the irrelevance India is burdened with today, in time, could help generate what best suits India’s requirements and the ethos of her people.

Relevance for today. The legacy of British educational policies continues to shape India's educational landscape. Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of pre-British systems can inform contemporary efforts to create a more equitable and effective education system. This requires a critical re-evaluation of existing models and a willingness to draw inspiration from indigenous traditions.

Restoring social balance. The destruction of indigenous education disproportionately affected marginalized communities. Rebuilding a more inclusive system requires addressing historical inequities and ensuring that all sections of society have access to quality education. The pathshalas and madrassahs had enabled them to participate openly and appropriately and with dignity not only in the social and cultural life of their locality but, if they wished, ensured participation at the more extended levels.

Reclaiming cultural identity. The imposition of Western education led to a sense of cultural alienation among many Indians. Reviving elements of indigenous learning can help restore a sense of cultural pride and identity, fostering a more confident and self-reliant society. The neglect and deliberate uprooting of Indian education, the measures which were employed to this end, and its replacement by an alien and rootless system had several consequences for India.

Last updated: April 24, 2025