The Earth Is Weeping

1. Expansionist Policies Fueled Inevitable Conflict

In the two and a half centuries between the settlement of the Jamestown colony in Virginia and Lincoln’s cautionary words to the Cheyenne chief, a relentlessly expansionist white population had driven the Indians westward without regard to treaty obligations or, sometimes, even simple humanity.

Manifest Destiny. The relentless westward expansion of the United States, driven by the belief in Manifest Destiny, inevitably led to conflict with Native American tribes. This expansion disregarded existing treaties and often resulted in inhumane treatment of indigenous populations.

Government's Role. The U.S. government's policies, while not explicitly genocidal, consistently prioritized white settlement and economic development over Native American rights and sovereignty. This created a system where treaties were often broken or renegotiated to the detriment of the tribes.

Civilization vs. Savagery. The prevailing attitude of the time framed Native Americans as "savages" who needed to be "civilized," justifying the seizure of their lands and the destruction of their way of life. This mindset fueled the expansionist policies and made conflict unavoidable.

2. Intertribal Warfare Weakened Native Resistance

Only in the Pacific Northwest were the Indians able to unite against the sudden and vigorous white expansion.

Lack of Unity. The inability of Native American tribes to unite against the encroaching white settlers significantly weakened their resistance. Long-standing intertribal conflicts and rivalries prevented a cohesive front.

Exploitation of Divisions. The U.S. government skillfully exploited these divisions, forming alliances with certain tribes against others. This "divide and conquer" strategy further fragmented Native American resistance and made it easier for the army to subdue them.

Examples of Alliances. The Shoshones, Crows, and Pawnees, for instance, allied with the U.S. Army against their traditional enemies, the Lakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos. These alliances provided the army with valuable scouts and knowledge of the terrain, giving them a strategic advantage.

3. Broken Treaties and Betrayal Sparked Retaliation

Then Lean Bear was just thirty feet from the soldiers when they opened fire. The chief was dead before he hit the ground. After the smoke cleared, several troops broke ranks and pumped more bullets into his corpse. As Lincoln had cautioned Lean Bear, his children sometimes behaved badly.

Cycle of Violence. The U.S. government's history of broken treaties and acts of betrayal fueled a cycle of violence and retaliation. Massacres like Sand Creek and the murder of peace chiefs like Lean Bear ignited anger and resentment among Native Americans, leading to raids and attacks on white settlements.

Justification for Retaliation. Native Americans often viewed their attacks as justified responses to the injustices they had suffered. They saw themselves as defending their lands, families, and way of life against an aggressive and untrustworthy enemy.

Escalation of Conflict. These retaliatory actions, in turn, were used by the U.S. government to justify further military intervention and land seizures, perpetuating the cycle of violence and pushing the tribes closer to the brink of extinction.

4. The Army's Ineffectiveness Stemmed from Internal Issues

That a general would offer such a candid and forceful public defense of the Indians seems implausible because it contradicts an enduring myth: that the regular army was the implacable foe of the Indian.

Poor Training and Equipment. The U.S. Army's effectiveness in the Indian Wars was hampered by a number of internal issues, including poorly trained soldiers, inadequate equipment, and a lack of understanding of Native American warfare tactics.

Low Morale and Desertion. Low pay, harsh living conditions, and a lack of purpose led to low morale and high rates of desertion among soldiers. This further weakened the army's ability to effectively combat Native American resistance.

Command Structure and Leadership. An unwieldy command structure, coupled with inconsistent leadership and internal conflicts among officers, further hindered the army's efforts. The army was also hampered by an unwieldy command structure and their own failure to develop a doctrine for fighting an unconventional foe.

5. Red Cloud's War Exposed White Vulnerability

Then the Indians turned their attention to the unfinished fort itself, and the picturesque landscape took on a menacing aspect. During the day, warriors watched the soldiers from Lodge Trail Ridge. After nightfall, Indian campfires burned uncomfortably close.

Bozeman Trail Conflict. Red Cloud's War, fought over the Bozeman Trail in Montana Territory, exposed the vulnerability of white settlers and the U.S. Army to Native American resistance. The war demonstrated the Indians' ability to effectively disrupt white expansion and inflict significant casualties.

Fetterman Massacre. The Fetterman Massacre, in which Captain William Fetterman and his entire command were killed by Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, was a major victory for Native Americans and a humiliating defeat for the U.S. Army.

Fort Laramie Treaty. Red Cloud's War ultimately forced the U.S. government to negotiate the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which granted the Lakotas a large reservation and closed the Bozeman Trail. This was a rare instance of Native American resistance achieving a significant political victory.

6. The Peace Policy Proved a Flawed Solution

Sherman pinned his hopes for a permanent peace not on the army but rather on the transcontinental railroad, then under construction.

Good Intentions, Poor Execution. President Grant's Peace Policy, aimed at assimilating Native Americans into white society through education and religious conversion, was ultimately undermined by corruption, mismanagement, and a lack of understanding of Native American cultures.

Forced Assimilation. The policy's emphasis on forced assimilation, including the suppression of Native American languages and traditions, proved deeply destructive to indigenous communities.

Failure to Protect Land. The Peace Policy also failed to protect Native American lands from white encroachment, as settlers and miners continued to push westward, leading to renewed conflict.

7. The Buffalo's Demise Sealed the Plains Indians' Fate

Well before the first American ventured beyond the Mississippi River, the European gifts of horses, guns, and disease had radically altered Plains and Rocky Mountain Indians’ cultures.

Economic and Cultural Impact. The systematic destruction of the American bison, or buffalo, by white hunters had a devastating impact on the Plains Indians, who relied on the animal for food, clothing, shelter, and spiritual sustenance.

Deliberate Strategy. The U.S. government and military actively encouraged the buffalo slaughter as a means of weakening Native American resistance and forcing them onto reservations.

Loss of Independence. With the buffalo gone, the Plains Indians were left with no means of self-sufficiency and became entirely dependent on the government for survival, further eroding their autonomy and cultural identity.

8. The Tragedy at Wounded Knee Marked the End of Resistance

Tragedy at Wounded Knee Creek, Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota.

Ghost Dance Movement. The Ghost Dance, a spiritual movement that promised the restoration of Native American lands and the return of the buffalo, spread rapidly among the Lakotas in the late 1880s, alarming white settlers and government officials.

Wounded Knee Massacre. The Wounded Knee Massacre, in which U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of unarmed Lakota men, women, and children, marked the tragic end of organized Native American resistance on the Great Plains.

Symbol of Oppression. Wounded Knee became a symbol of the injustice and brutality inflicted upon Native Americans by the U.S. government, and it continues to resonate in Native American communities today.

9. Key Figures Shaped the Course of the Indian Wars

That a general would offer such a candid and forceful public defense of the Indians seems implausible because it contradicts an enduring myth: that the regular army was the implacable foe of the Indian.

• Red Cloud: A skilled Lakota war leader who successfully resisted white encroachment on the Bozeman Trail.
• Spotted Tail: A Brulé Lakota chief who advocated for peaceful accommodation with the U.S. government.
• Sitting Bull: A Hunkpapa Lakota holy man and war leader who fiercely resisted white expansion and became a symbol of Native American resistance.
• Crazy Horse: An Oglala Lakota war leader known for his courage, skill, and unwavering commitment to traditional ways.
• General William T. Sherman: A Union war hero who oversaw the military conquest of the West and held complex and often contradictory views on Native Americans.
• General Philip Sheridan: A Union war hero who implemented a scorched-earth policy against Native Americans and believed in their subjugation.
• Colonel George Armstrong Custer: A flamboyant and controversial cavalry officer whose death at the Little Bighorn became a symbol of the Indian Wars.
• Colonel Ranald Mackenzie: A skilled and ruthless army officer who played a key role in subduing the Southern Plains tribes and the Apaches.

10. The Ghost Dance Religion Offered Hope Amidst Despair

There was no sense of “Indianness” until it was too late, and then it came but dimly through a millennial faith that brought only bloodshed, horror, and broken hopes.

Spiritual Revival. The Ghost Dance religion, originating with the Paiute prophet Wovoka, offered Native Americans a vision of hope and renewal in the face of cultural destruction and despair.

Promise of Restoration. The Ghost Dance promised the return of the buffalo, the restoration of Native American lands, and the reunion of the living with their deceased ancestors.

Misinterpretation and Fear. The U.S. government and white settlers misinterpreted the Ghost Dance as a prelude to war, leading to increased military presence on reservations and ultimately to the tragedy at Wounded Knee.

Last updated: April 13, 2025