The Elements of Eloquence

1. Eloquence is a Learned Skill, Not an Innate Gift

Shakespeare was not a genius. He was, without the distant shadow of a doubt, the most wonderful writer who ever breathed. But not a genius. No angels handed him his lines, no fairies proofread for him. Instead, he learnt techniques, he learnt tricks, and he learnt them well.

Shakespeare's Craft. The common misconception of genius as an inherent, unteachable trait is challenged by examining Shakespeare's development as a writer. His early works, such as Love's Labour's Lost and Titus Andronicus, lack the memorable lines and skillful construction of his later plays. This progression demonstrates that Shakespeare honed his craft through learning and practice, not through divine inspiration.

Rhetoric as a Foundation. Shakespeare's education heavily emphasized classical rhetoric, including the figures of rhetoric. These figures are specific techniques for making phrases striking and memorable by altering their wording, not by changing their meaning. Elizabethan London was obsessed with these rhetorical figures, with numerous books published on the subject.

Blindfolded Cooks. The figures of rhetoric are still alive and thriving, though often used haphazardly. Without formal training, modern writers and speakers occasionally stumble upon these techniques by accident, like "blindfolded cooks throwing anything into the pot and occasionally, just occasionally, producing a delicious meal." Shakespeare, however, had a "big recipe book and his eyes wide open," mastering these techniques to craft his iconic lines.

2. Alliteration Amplifies Memorability

Nobody knows why we love to hear words that begin with the same letter, but we do and Shakespeare knew it.

The Power of Sound. Alliteration, the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words, is a simple yet powerful tool for enhancing memorability. Shakespeare masterfully employed alliteration, as seen in his adaptation of Plutarch's description of Cleopatra's barge in Antony and Cleopatra. By adding alliteration, Shakespeare transformed a mundane passage into a vivid and unforgettable image.

Beyond Sense. The effectiveness of alliteration transcends the meaning of the words themselves. Phrases like "Full fathom five thy father lies" are memorable not for their profound content, but for their pleasing sound. This principle extends to proverbs and idioms, where alliteration often trumps logical sense.

Examples of Alliteration:

• "Curiosity killed the cat"
• "Bright as a button"
• "Cool as a cucumber"
• "Dead as a doornail"

Political Power. Alliteration's appeal is so strong that it has even been used in political slogans and marketing campaigns. From "Ban the bomb" to "Power to the people" to "Put a tiger in your tank," alliteration has proven to be a persuasive tool for capturing attention and driving action.

3. Polyptoton Adds Depth Through Repetition

‘Please Please Me’1 is a classic case of polyptoton. The first please is please the interjection, as in ‘Please mind the gap’. The second please is a verb meaning to give pleasure, as in ‘This pleases me’. Same word: two different parts of speech.

Repeating with a Twist. Polyptoton, the repetition of a word in different grammatical forms, adds depth and complexity to language. It's a subtle technique that can create a sense of emphasis, irony, or even perversity. The Beatles' "Please Please Me" is a prime example, using "please" as both an interjection and a verb.

Shakespeare's Love for Polyptoton. Shakespeare frequently employed polyptoton, often repeating words wholesale for emphasis. In Richard II, Bolingbroke's "Grace me no grace, nor uncle me no uncle" showcases this technique. He even reused this trick in Romeo and Juliet, demonstrating his fondness for the device.

Beyond Shakespeare. Susanna Centlivre's line from The Busybody, "But me no buts," is a famous example of polyptoton that surpasses even Shakespeare's usage. Neil Armstrong's famous "one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind" would have been a great example of antithesis and polyptoton, but static cut out the "a" in "for a man," ruining the polyptoton.

4. Antithesis Creates Clarity Through Contrast

Antithesis is simple. Indeed, the only tricky thing about antithesis is how to punctuate it. Some insist that you should use a colon: others complain that you should use a full stop. But in essence antitheses are simple: first you mention one thing: then you mention another.

Balancing Opposites. Antithesis is a rhetorical device that juxtaposes contrasting ideas in parallel structure. It's a simple yet effective way to create clarity and emphasis. While the punctuation may be debated, the essence of antithesis lies in presenting one thing followed by its opposite.

Wildean Wit. Oscar Wilde was a master of antithesis, using it to create witty and insightful observations. His lines, such as "The well-bred contradict other people. The wise contradict themselves," showcase the power of unexpected inversion.

Biblical Beauty. The Bible is replete with antitheses, often presenting seemingly obvious contrasts in a poetic and memorable way. Ecclesiastes' "To every thing there is a season" is a prime example, listing a series of opposing actions and emotions. Katy Perry's "Hot N Cold" is a modern example of antithesis.

5. Merism Captures Wholes by Listing Parts

Merism, ladies and gentlemen, often looks like antithesis, but it’s different. Merism is when you don’t say what you’re talking about, and instead name all of its parts.

Defining the Undefined. Merism is a rhetorical device that describes a whole by enumerating its parts. It's an unnecessary yet evocative technique that adds depth and texture to language. "Ladies and gentlemen" is a merism for "people," as all people are either ladies or gentlemen.

Legal Language. Merism finds its natural home in legal documents, where lawyers meticulously list every component of a concept. This may be due to the billing system. The phrase "including but not limited to" is a lawyer's lucky phrase, getting them out of the trouble that the merism got them into in the first place.

Love and War. Merism is often associated with love, as it brings opposites together. Cole Porter's "Night and Day" is a classic example, using merisms like "beneath the moon or under the sun" to convey the idea of always. Tennyson's "Cannon to right of them, / Cannon to left of them, / Cannon in front of them" is a merism for "cannon all around them."

6. Synaesthesia Transcends Sensory Boundaries

She smelled the way the Taj Mahal looks by moonlight.

Blending the Senses. Synaesthesia is a rhetorical device that describes one sense in terms of another. It's a powerful technique for creating vivid and memorable imagery. "Harmonious colors" and a "silky voice" are common examples of synaesthesia.

Chandler's Jarring Imagery. Raymond Chandler's line, "She smelled the way the Taj Mahal looks by moonlight," is striking because it combines smell and sight in an unexpected way. Synaesthesias of smell are particularly jarring and effective.

Abstract Sensations. Synaesthesia reaches its purest form when a sense is given to something completely abstract. The line "I love the smell of napalm in the morning... Smelled like... victory" from Apocalypse Now is a powerful example of this.

7. Aposiopesis: The Power of Unspoken Words

Aposiopesis is when …

Becoming Silent. Aposiopesis, signaled by three dots in English punctuation, is the act of becoming silent mid-sentence. It's a technique that can be used for various effects, from conveying death to expressing overwhelming emotion. Aposiopesis is Greek for becoming silent.

Reasons for Silence. The simplest reason for aposiopesis is death, as seen in countless whodunit scenes. Sometimes, aposiopesis is used because the speaker simply doesn't know what to say, as in King Lear's "I will have such revenges on you both, / That all the world shall … I will do such things …"

The Obvious Conclusion. Aposiopesis can also be used when the second half of the sentence is so obvious that it doesn't need to be said. Phrases like "When in Rome..." rely on the listener to complete the thought. God used aposiopesis for the sheer joy of it.

8. Hyperbaton: Re-ordering Words for Impact

Hyperbaton is when you put words in an odd order, which is very, very difficult to do in English.

Breaking the Order. Hyperbaton is a rhetorical device that involves altering the typical word order in a sentence. This is particularly challenging in English, where word order is relatively strict. Adjectives in English absolutely have to be in this order: opinion-size-age-shape-colour-origin-material-purpose Noun.

Civil Servant's Revenge. One of the most famous examples of hyperbaton in English comes from a civil servant twisting a sentence round to get the preposition away from the end. Winston Churchill underlined it and wrote in the margin: ‘This is the kind of English up with which I will not put.’

Stone Walls. Richard Lovelace's line, "Stone walls do not a prison make, / Nor iron bars a cage," is a classic example of hyperbaton that has become part of the language. Yoda, from Star Wars, is known for getting his word order wrong, but even he dropped hyperbaton when he could get in a good bit of anadiplosis.

9. Anadiplosis: Building Momentum Through Repetition

Yoda1 is known for wrong his word order getting, but his most quoted line, from Star Wars, Episode 1: The Phantom Menace, uses a different figure entirely. Yoda announces that fear leads to anger. He then takes the last word of that sentence and repeats it as the first word of the next: anger leads to hatred.

Linking Ideas. Anadiplosis is the repetition of the last word of one clause as the first word of the next. It's a technique that creates a sense of logical progression and momentum. Yoda's famous line, "Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hatred. Hatred leads to suffering," is a prime example.

Philosophical Chains. Anadiplosis can be used to express a variety of philosophical viewpoints. Jesse Jackson observed that "Suffering breeds character; character breeds faith; in the end faith will not disappoint." Malcolm X observed that: Once you change your philosophy, you change your thought pattern. Once you change your thought pattern, you change your attitude. Once you change your attitude, it changes your behavior pattern and then you go on into some action.

Glue and Connection. Anadiplosis can also add harmony and connection, like a repeated musical phrase. Milton, mourning his dead friend in Lycidas, wrote: "For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime." Anadiplosis gives the glue and connection to the Lennon and McCartney song ‘Here, There and Everywhere’.

10. Periodic Sentences: Building Suspense to a Climax

The trick of the periodic sentence is that, until you’ve got to the end, until you’ve found that clause or verb that completes the syntax, until you’ve finally got to the period of the period, you can’t stop.

Delayed Gratification. A periodic sentence is a long, complex sentence that is not grammatically complete until the very end. This technique creates suspense and forces the reader to follow the writer's train of thought to its conclusion. Kipling's poem "If" is one long, 294-word sentence, 273 of which are conditional clauses.

Shakespeare's Piling of Nouns. Shakespeare used the same trick, but usually by piling nouns one on top of the other. In The Tempest Prospero says: And, like the baseless fabric of this vision, / The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces, / The solemn temples, the great globe itself, / Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve …

Maintaining Self-Control. Even in the midst of a jealous rage, Sting still maintained the self-control to save his main verb for the end of the verse in the song ‘Every Breath You Take’. Milton managed to hold off the first verb of Paradise Lost by digging a huge grammatical hole and setting up camp in it.

11. Hypotaxis and Parataxis: Crafting Sentences with Complexity or Simplicity

Parataxis is like this. It’s good, plain English. It’s one sentence. Then it’s another sentence. It’s direct. It’s farmer’s English.

Two Styles. Hypotaxis and parataxis represent two contrasting approaches to sentence construction. Parataxis favors short, simple sentences connected by conjunctions, creating a direct and straightforward style. Hypotaxis, on the other hand, uses subordinate clauses to create complex and layered sentences.

Sir Thomas Browne. Sir Thomas Browne was the first ever English prose writer. Browne gave to the English language the glory of the preposterously long sentence: sentences that nobody in their right minds would ever say aloud, sentences that are intricate games, filled with fine flourishes and curious convolutions.

Civilized Sentences. Hypotaxis is unnatural in English; nobody would ever say a sentence like the one above. You have to think calmly for a long time to come up with a good hypotactic sentence, and so a good hypotactic sentence tells the reader that you have been thinking calmly for long time. An angry drunk might shout paratactically; only a just and gentle mind can be hypotactic.

12. Diacope: Emphasizing Key Words Through Interruption

Diacope (pronounced die-ACK-oh-pee) is a verbal sandwich: a word or phrase is repeated after a brief interruption.

Verbal Sandwich. Diacope is a rhetorical device that involves repeating a word or phrase after a brief interruption. It's a simple yet effective way to emphasize key ideas and create a memorable effect. The line "Bond. James Bond" is a classic example of diacope.

The Wizard of Oz. Every child remembers how, in The Wizard of Oz, the Wicked Witch of the West3 cries: ‘Fly, my pretties, fly!’ Except that she doesn’t. In the film the flying monkeys are instructed to ‘Fly! Fly! Fly! Fly!’ and there is no vocative my pretties to be heard.

British Prime Ministers. British Prime Ministers are always having diacope thrust upon them by the popular imagination. There’s a well-known story of a journalist asking Harold Macmillan what the biggest problem was for a government. Harold Macmillan replied, ‘Events, dear boy, events.’

13. Rhetorical Questions: Engaging the Audience's Mind

What, O what is a rhetorical question? Is it merely a question that requires no answer? No. Is it a question where the answer is too obvious to need stating?

More Than a Question. A rhetorical question is a question asked for effect, not to elicit an answer. It can be used to make a statement, challenge an assumption, or engage the audience's mind. The Greeks and Romans had a jolly good shot at it, but they certainly didn’t use a term as vague and nebulous as ‘rhetorical question’.

Types of Rhetorical Questions. There are many different types of rhetorical questions, each with its own specific purpose. Erotisis is a question that isn't really a question at all. Epiplexis is a question that expresses grief or insult. Anacoenosis is a question where a particular audience will answer in a particular way.

Hypophora and Subjectio. Hypophora is a rhetorical question that is immediately answered aloud, usually by the person who asked. Subjectio is a series of questions and answers about religion that you have to memorize. Aporia is asking a question when you really don’t know the answer.

14. Hendiadys: Combining Nouns for Poetic Effect

Hendiadys (pronounced hen-DIE-a-dis) is the most elusive and tricky of all rhetorical tricks. Mostly because you can never be sure whether it’s happened.

Two for One. Hendiadys is a rhetorical device that replaces an adjective-noun construction with two nouns connected by a conjunction. Instead of saying "the noisy city," you say "the noise and the city." The principle of hendiadys is easy. You take an adjective and a noun, and then you change the adjective into another noun.

Shakespeare's Favorite. Hendiadys is either common as muck or as rare as gold. Lots of everyday forgettable phrases use it (be a good fellow and close the door is not two commands). But almost no great writers do, except Shakespeare.

Beauty and Moonlight. For my money, the greatest use of hendiadys isn’t by Shakespeare, but by Leonard Cohen in his song ‘Hallelujah’: You saw her bathing on the roof. Her beauty and the moonlight overthrew you. The ‘and’ where we might expect ‘in’ makes the hendiadys.

15. Epistrophe: Reinforcing Ideas Through Repetition at Endings

When you end each sentence with the same word, that’s epistrophe. When each clause has the same words at the end, that’s epistrophe.

Repeating the End. Epistrophe is the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses, sentences, or paragraphs. It's a powerful technique for emphasizing key ideas and creating a sense of closure. This means that half the songs ever written are just extended examples of epistrophe.

The Trope of Obsession. Epistrophe is the trope of obsession. It’s the trope of emphasising one point again and again. And it’s the trope of not being able to escape that one conclusion, which is one of the reasons that songs are so suited to the idea of obsessive love, political certainty and other such unhealthy ideas.

Death and Epistrophe. Epistrophe is particularly suited for death; I suppose because death is the huge human epistrophe, and all biographies end the same way. Epistrophe works wonderfully with a good but. You demonstrate that all the doors are closed. This door is closed. That door is closed. The other door is closed. And then you point out the fire exit.

16. Tricolon: The Power of Three

Three is the magic number of literary composition, but to explain why that is you have to look at the much more boring number two.

The Rule of Three. A tricolon is a series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses. It's a powerful rhetorical device that creates a sense of completeness and rhythm. I came; I saw; I conquered. Sun, sea and sex.

Breaking the Pattern. With a tricolon you can set up a pattern and then break it. ‘Lies, damned lies, and statistics’ is a simple example. The first two words establish the direction we’re going. The third twists things for humorous purposes.

Grand Rhetoric. This sense of completeness makes the tricolon perfectly suited to grand rhetoric. That’s why Barack Obama packed 21 tricolons into his short victory speech. Tricolons sound statesmanlike. It’s government of the people, by the people, for the people.

17. Epizeuxis: Emphasizing Through Immediate Repetition

Epizeuxis (pronounced ep-ee-ZOOX-is) is repeating a word immediately in exactly the same sense. Simple. Simple. Simple.

Immediate Repetition. Epizeuxis is the repetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession, with no intervening words. It's a technique that creates emphasis and intensity. Demosthenes was asked what the three most important things in rhetoric were, and he replied: ‘Action. Action. Action.’

Intensification. In 1996 Tony Blair told the Labour Party conference: ‘Ask me my three main priorities for government and I tell you: education, education and education.’ Mr Blair had, almost certainly, stolen the joke from real estate agents, but it goes back to Demosthenes.

Emotion and Resignation. Epizeuxis is ambiguous. Sometimes it means a moment of intense emotion, and sometimes an inescapable drone. The actor playing King Lear can either scream the words ‘Never, never, never, never, never!’ or mumble them.

18. Syllepsis: Creating Wit Through Grammatical Play

Syllepsis is when one word is used in two incongruous ways.

One Word, Two Meanings. Syllepsis is a rhetorical device in which a single word is used in relation to two other parts of a sentence, even though the word grammatically or logically applies to only one of them. In fact, it can be more than two. Let’s start with nine, which is the longest example I’ve ever found.

Concrete and Abstract. The commonest form is the simple contrast of the concrete and the abstract. When the prophet Joel told the people of Israel to ‘Rend your heart, and not your garments’ he was using the same trick that the prophet Mick Jagger1 employed when he talked in one song about a lady who was able to blow not only his nose, but his mind.

Subtle Syllepsis. There are, though, subtle syllepses. ‘Make love not war’ is a syllepsis, just one that’s barely noticeable. It gives the phrase its spice, but you wouldn’t be able to pick out the flavour without a good long chew.

19. Isocolon: Balancing Phrases for Rhythmic Impact

Roses are red. Violets are blue. That, at its simplest, is isocolon.

Parallel Structure. Isocolon is a rhetorical device that uses a succession of phrases or clauses of approximately equal length and corresponding structure. It creates a sense of balance and rhythm. The Ancient Greeks were rather obsessed with isocolon, the modern world has rather forgotten it.

Spot the Difference. Modern isocolons tend to work as a kind of spot-the-difference game. We use the similarities to point up the differences, and use the differences to point up the similarities. Rick’s lines contrast where with what, going with doing, following with taking part.

Advertising and Music. The isocolon is particularly useful to advertisers. The parallelism can imply that two statements are the same thing even if they aren’t. ‘Have a break. Have a Kit-Kat’ is a clever little line because it uses isocolon to try to make two rather different things synonymous.

20. Enallage: Deviating from Grammar for Emphasis

Enallage (e-NALL-aj-ee) is a deliberate grammatical mistake.

Intentional Error. Enallage is a rhetorical device that involves a deliberate grammatical mistake. It's a technique that can be used to create emphasis, add character, or achieve a particular effect. That definition raises all sorts of philosophical questions about whether a mistake can be deliberate, and all sorts of linguistic questions about what correct English grammar is and whether one chap ever really has the right to tell another chap he’s wrong.

Memorable Mistakes. Joseph Conrad knew that grammatically a verb was required to make a complete sentence, but the line ‘Mr Kurtz is dead’ would have been neither striking nor memorable. It wouldn’t have made the dictionary of quotations and T.S. Eliot wouldn’t have used it as the epigraph for ‘The Hollow Men’.

Love Me Tender. Strict grammarians don’t seem to mind about the line ‘Love me tender’ either. Any child could tell you that the words should be ‘love me tenderly, love me truly’, but they aren’t and it’s much better that way.

21. Adynaton: Highlighting Impossibility for Dramatic Effect

An adynaton (pronounced ad-in-ART-on) is impossible. Before an adynaton will work, pigs will fly, Hell will freeze over and the Devil will go skiing.

Impossible Scenarios. An adynaton is a rhetorical device that uses a series of impossible scenarios to express a particular point. It's a way of emphasizing the unlikelihood or impossibility of something. Jesus’ importance for rhetoric is therefore that he didn’t believe in adynata.

Verbal Fun. Adynaton is just Greek for ‘impossible’, but that doesn’t mean that anything impossible is an adynaton, because in rhetoric adynaton is just a long way round of saying ‘this is the case’. Almost any sentence can have an adynaton added in.

Auden's Love. W.H. Auden’s exclamation of undying love: ‘I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you / Till China and Africa meet, / And the river jumps over the mountain / And the salmon sing in the street.

22. Prolepsis: Creating Intrigue by Foreshadowing

It’s perfectly natural, prolepsis. We use it all the time in conversation, but we rarely write it down.

Pronouns First. Prolepsis is a rhetorical device that involves using a pronoun before introducing the noun it refers to. It's a technique that can create mystery and intrigue. About pronouns they were sometimes wrong, the old masters; because you can use a pronoun before saying what it refers to.

Mystery and Thoughtfulness. Prolepsis has two great advantages. First, it has mystery, but not too much. Second, it is thoughtful and natural. We have all, after thinking about something for a while, lost in meditation, suddenly said something like ‘That’s it!’ or ‘They’re all in it together!’

Larkin's Lesson. Philip Larkin (1971) had probably learnt that lesson from the first line of Stevie Smith’s ‘Not Waving But Drowning’ (1957), which uses exactly the same technique for its first line: Nobody heard him, the dead man, / But still he lay moaning.

23. Personification: Giving Life to the Inanimate

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Last updated: March 22, 2025