The End of the Myth

1. The American myth of the frontier shaped national identity and democracy.

「無主地地區的存在，它的節節敗退，以及美國定居線的西進，解釋了美國的發展。」

Frontier as destiny. The idea of a vast, open frontier was central to the American self-image, seen as a place of constant rebirth and opportunity. Historians like Frederick Jackson Turner argued that the process of settling this "free land" forged a unique American character – individualistic, democratic, and forward-looking, distinct from old Europe. This myth posited that progress and freedom were inherently linked to continuous westward movement.

Escape from history. The frontier offered an escape from the constraints of the Old World and the complexities of established societies. It was imagined as an Eden where Americans could become "new Adams," free from natural limits, social obligations, and historical ambiguities. This belief in endless possibility became deeply embedded in the national psyche, promising that social problems like poverty and inequality would fade away with expansion.

A powerful narrative. This narrative of the frontier as the source of American exceptionalism was widely adopted by politicians, intellectuals, and the public. It provided a compelling explanation for the nation's growth and prosperity, suggesting that its unique democratic form was a direct result of the westward push. This powerful myth would be invoked repeatedly to justify expansion in various forms.

2. Westward expansion served as a "safety valve" for internal social and racial conflicts.

這是「將此時此刻看似無法解決的社會衝突的解方，設想於彼方。」

Relieving internal pressure. The frontier acted as a "safety valve," diverting internal social and class tensions outwards. When faced with conflicts like economic inequality or labor unrest, the promise of free or cheap land in the West offered an alternative to confronting these issues directly within established areas. This allowed the nation to avoid the social revolutions that plagued Europe.

Diverting discontent. This mechanism was consciously understood and promoted by leaders. Figures like James Madison believed that expanding the "sphere" of the republic would dilute factionalism and political strife by scattering diverse interests across a vast territory. Later, politicians argued that westward expansion provided an outlet for discontented white laborers and a solution to the growing problem of free Black populations in the South.

A temporary fix. While expansion temporarily eased some internal pressures, it did not resolve the underlying issues. Instead, it often intensified them, particularly racial and class divisions, by creating new arenas for conflict and exploitation. The "safety valve" merely postponed the inevitable reckoning with the nation's fundamental contradictions.

3. Racial violence and dispossession were fundamental to the frontier process.

美洲原住民都必須讓道。

Built on dispossession. The myth of the frontier as "free land" ignored the reality that the land was already inhabited. Expansion inherently involved the violent dispossession and removal of Native American tribes. This process was justified through dehumanizing rhetoric, portraying indigenous peoples as obstacles to civilization or agents of Satan.

Racial hierarchy. The frontier was not just about acquiring land; it was about establishing a racial hierarchy. As the US expanded, it imposed a system of white supremacy, marginalizing or enslaving non-white populations, including Native Americans and Mexicans. The concept of "Caucasian democracy" explicitly linked political freedom to racial identity, making the subjugation of others a condition for white liberty.

Violence as a tool. Violence against Native Americans and Mexicans was not an unfortunate byproduct of expansion but a deliberate tool. Massacres, forced removals, and the destruction of communities were systematic policies aimed at clearing land for white settlement and resource extraction. This brutal reality stood in stark contrast to the idealized image of the peaceful pioneer.

4. The pursuit of expansion fueled a cycle of militarism and conflict.

「你準備好要迎接所有這些戰爭了嗎？」

Endless conflict. The drive for expansion created a perpetual state of conflict. From early skirmishes with Native Americans and European powers to the Mexican-American War, the US was almost constantly engaged in military action to acquire and secure territory. This normalized violence as a means of achieving national goals.

Blowback. As John Quincy Adams presciently warned, this cycle of violence would inevitably lead to "blowback." Wars against Native Americans and Mexico generated resentment and resistance, requiring further military action. This created a self-perpetuating loop where the consequences of one conflict became the justification for the next.

Militarization of society. The constant need for military force to push the frontier outward contributed to the militarization of American society. Military figures gained political prominence, and martial values became intertwined with national identity. This laid the groundwork for future interventions and a reliance on military solutions to complex problems.

5. Overseas wars continued the frontier myth, uniting the nation through shared violence.

「我們在大洋之外為自己開闢了一道新的邊疆。」

Frontier beyond the continent. With the closing of the continental frontier, the US turned its expansionist energies overseas. The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a significant shift, acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This was framed as opening a "new frontier" across the oceans, a continuation of the nation's historical destiny.

Reunion through war. The Spanish-American War also served as a powerful force for national unity after the Civil War. Soldiers from the North and South fought together, symbolically healing the divisions of the past. This "agreement of 1898" allowed white Southerners to re-enter the national fold without abandoning their white supremacist views, which were then projected onto the new colonial subjects.

Exporting racial violence. The racial violence that characterized the continental frontier was exported to the new overseas territories. American soldiers, many from the South, applied the same brutal tactics and racist attitudes developed in the Indian Wars and against African Americans to the populations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This reinforced racial hierarchies both abroad and at home.

6. The "safety valve" became less effective as internal problems intensified.

「無主地不復存在，大陸被開墾殆盡，所有這些動力和能量都成了煽動的管道。」

Limits to growth. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the physical frontier was officially closed. While overseas expansion and economic globalization attempted to maintain the myth of endless opportunity, the reality of limited resources and intensifying internal problems became harder to ignore. Issues like wealth concentration, urban poverty, and labor unrest grew more acute.

Rise of new "bandits". The era of industrial capitalism saw the rise of powerful corporations and financiers who, like the earlier pioneers, sought to exploit resources and expand their dominion. Critics argued that these "new preëmptors" monopolized wealth and power, undermining the democratic ideals supposedly born on the frontier. The safety valve of expansion was no longer effectively diffusing class conflict.

Psychological strain. The inability to endlessly escape internal contradictions led to psychological strain. The persistent myth of unlimited freedom clashed with the reality of increasing social and economic constraints. This created a sense of unease and a search for new ways to understand and address the nation's problems, sometimes leading to calls for social reform or, conversely, increased nativism.

7. The US-Mexico border became a permanent site of institutionalized racial exclusion.

「掠奪時分裂，佔領後團結。」

A fixed boundary. Unlike the ever-moving frontier, the US-Mexico border became a relatively fixed line after the Mexican-American War. This border, however, was not merely a geographical marker but a site of ongoing conflict, racial violence, and exclusion. It became a repository for the racial animosities that were central to the frontier process.

Institutionalized violence. The border region saw the rise of vigilante violence and the institutionalization of racial discrimination against Mexicans and Mexican Americans. Law enforcement, including the newly formed Border Patrol, often acted as agents of white supremacy, using brutality and intimidation to control and exclude non-white populations, mirroring the tactics used in earlier frontier conflicts.

A symbol of limitation. As the myth of the endless frontier faded, the border emerged as a powerful symbol of limitation and exclusion. It represented a boundary that could not be easily crossed, a stark contrast to the open possibilities of the frontier narrative. This physical and symbolic barrier became increasingly central to debates about national identity and who belonged in America.

8. The myth of endless expansion persisted through economic globalization.

「這個新的全球經濟是我們的新邊疆」

Globalization as the new frontier. In the late 20th century, the concept of the frontier was re-imagined once again, this time as economic globalization. Free trade agreements like NAFTA were promoted as opening new markets and opportunities, a continuation of the American drive for expansion and prosperity on a global scale. This framed economic growth as the new source of national vitality.

Corporate dominion. This new economic frontier primarily benefited corporations and financial institutions, allowing them to seek cheaper labor and resources overseas. While framed as promoting universal prosperity, these policies often led to job losses and wage stagnation domestically, and economic disruption and displacement in other countries, particularly Mexico.

Contradiction and displacement. The promise of globalization as a new safety valve failed to address internal inequalities. Instead, it exacerbated them, while simultaneously creating new populations of displaced people (like Mexican farmers unable to compete with subsidized US corn) who then migrated, often across the militarized border, seeking opportunity. This created a new cycle of displacement and resentment.

9. The end of the myth is marked by the turning inward of extremism and the border wall.

「活過神話的終結是件極其危險的事。」

Myth meets reality. The cumulative effects of failed wars, economic crises, and unresolved social issues led to a widespread sense of disillusionment. The myth of endless expansion and opportunity could no longer credibly contain or diffuse internal tensions. Extremism, long projected outwards onto frontier enemies, began to turn inward.

Symbol of exclusion. Donald Trump's call for a border wall became a potent symbol of this turning inward and the explicit rejection of the frontier myth's universalist pretensions. The wall represents a desire to physically and symbolically exclude outsiders and to define American identity through limitation and racial criteria, rather than boundless possibility.

Nativism resurfaces. Trumpism embodies a resurgence of the toxic nativism and racial resentment that were always present on the frontier but were supposedly left behind as the nation progressed. It leverages anxieties about immigration, economic insecurity, and cultural change, channeling them into a politics of exclusion and grievance, marking a dangerous moment at the end of the myth.

10. American history is a struggle between the promise of freedom and the reality of racial oppression.

美國將立國之本建立在「政府應該放手讓個人追求各自的利益」之上。

Contradictory foundations. The US was founded on the promise of liberty and individual rights, yet this promise was immediately contradicted by the reality of slavery and the violent dispossession of Native Americans. The history of the nation is a continuous struggle to reconcile these opposing forces.

Freedom for some. The "freedom" celebrated in the frontier myth was often contingent on the unfreedom of others. The ability of white settlers to pursue their interests and acquire property was directly linked to the subjugation and exploitation of non-white populations. This created a racialized definition of liberty that persists throughout American history.

Unresolved tensions. The end of the frontier myth forces the US to confront the unresolved tensions at its core. The problems of racial inequality, economic injustice, and political polarization, long deferred by the illusion of endless escape, must now be faced within the nation's borders. The future depends on whether the US can move beyond the destructive legacy of the frontier and build a more inclusive and just society.

Last updated: May 12, 2025