The Fall of the Ottomans

1. A Century of Decline Culminates in Crisis

As it struggled against internal and external threats to its territory, by the early twentieth century, political analysts predicted the imminent demise of the Ottoman Empire.

Long decline. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire, once the greatest Islamic power, faced territorial losses and internal decay. Starting in the late 17th century, its frontiers retreated against European and Russian expansion, and by the 19th century, nationalist movements in the Balkans chipped away at its European provinces. Economic weakness, highlighted by bankruptcy in 1875, further exposed the empire to foreign intervention and control.

Failed reforms. Attempts at modernization and constitutional reform in the late 19th century, like the 1876 constitution, were often short-lived, giving way to autocratic rule under Sultan Abdülhamid II. This period saw further losses:

• Cyprus to Britain (1878)
• Tunisia to France (1881)
• Egypt to Britain (1882)
• Three Caucasus provinces to Russia (1878)

Growing instability. By the early 20th century, the empire was widely seen as the "sick man of Europe," its survival in doubt. This backdrop of decline and vulnerability set the stage for the turbulent years leading up to World War I.

2. Young Turks Gamble on Reform and Alliance

With the rise of the Young Turks to power, the Ottomans entered a period of unprecedented turbulence that would ultimately draw the empire into its last and greatest war.

Revolutionary hope. In 1908, a group of patriotic officers and intellectuals, the Young Turks, launched a revolution to restore the constitution and save the empire through reform. Their initial success sparked widespread hope for a modern, inclusive Ottoman identity, uniting diverse ethnic and religious groups under the banner of "Justice, Equality, and Fraternity."

Dashed expectations. However, this period of hope quickly dissolved into disillusionment. The Young Turks struggled to govern effectively, facing economic instability and internal opposition. Crucially, their democratic turn failed to deter European powers, who seized on the empire's weakness:

• Bulgaria declared independence (1908)
• Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908)
• Crete announced union with Greece (1908)

Wars and consolidation. A counter-revolution in 1909 was suppressed, but the empire was soon plunged into wars. The Italian invasion of Libya (1911-1912) and the devastating Balkan Wars (1912-1913) stripped away the last European territories. These defeats hardened the Young Turks, leading to a more autocratic regime dominated by a triumvirate by 1913, determined to centralize power and protect what remained.

3. Entry into WWI Driven by Fear, Not Ambition

Weary of war and in need of time to rebuild its military and economy, the Ottoman leadership had no wish to enter a general European conflict.

Vulnerable position. Following years of conflict and territorial losses, the Ottoman Empire was exhausted and ill-prepared for another war in 1914. Its military needed rebuilding, and its economy was fragile. The leadership, dominated by the Young Turk triumvirate, primarily sought to avoid being drawn into the escalating European crisis.

Search for an ally. Recognizing their vulnerability, the Ottomans desperately sought a defensive alliance to protect their remaining territory from further dismemberment, particularly by Russia. They approached various European powers:

• Overtures to France and Britain failed, as these Entente powers were allied with Russia.
• Germany, initially hesitant, eventually agreed to a secret alliance.

Trigger events. Several factors pushed the Ottomans towards war alongside Germany. The British requisitioning of two dreadnoughts built for the Ottoman navy, paid for by public subscription, caused national outrage. The arrival of two German warships, the Goeben and Breslau, in Ottoman waters, and their subsequent "purchase" by the Ottomans, created a fait accompli that tied Istanbul closer to Berlin.

4. Mobilization Brings Hardship and Economic Collapse

The outbreak of war in Europe provoked alarm across the Ottoman Empire—from the cabinet offices of the Sublime Porte through the towns and countryside of Anatolia and the Arab lands.

Widespread dismay. The declaration of general mobilization in August 1914, even before formal entry into the war, was met with fear and apprehension across the empire. Many young men had already fled to avoid conscription after previous wars, and the prospect of another conflict brought deep foreboding.

Economic devastation. Mobilization crippled the Ottoman economy. Men left farms and factories for military service, reducing production. Ports closed, halting trade. The financial system froze as banks recalled loans and restricted withdrawals.

• Government revenues plummeted by 20% in late 1914.
• Inflation soared, causing hardship for civilians.
• Requisitioning of food, livestock, and goods further strained the population.

Desperate measures. To fund the war effort, the government resorted to extraordinary measures. They unilaterally abolished the Capitulations, ending foreign economic privileges, and imposed new and increased taxes on citizens and foreign
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Last updated: June 16, 2025