The Fundamentals of Ethics

1. Ethics Explores the Good Life, Right Action, and Moral Status

Ethics—also known as moral philosophy—is the branch of knowledge concerned with answering such questions.

Three core areas. Ethics, or moral philosophy, grapples with fundamental questions about how we ought to live. It encompasses value theory (defining the good life), normative ethics (determining moral duties), and metaethics (examining the status of moral claims). These areas are interconnected, with insights from one informing the others.

Value theory. Value theory explores what constitutes a good life, examining concepts like happiness, well-being, and intrinsic value. It asks whether happiness is the ultimate goal or if other factors, such as autonomy and knowledge, also contribute to a fulfilling existence.

Normative ethics and metaethics. Normative ethics delves into moral duties, virtues, and the principles that guide our interactions with others. Metaethics investigates the nature of moral claims, questioning whether they are objective truths, subjective opinions, or cultural constructs.

2. Hedonism Claims Happiness is the Ultimate Good

According to hedonists, a life is good to the extent that it is filled with pleasure and is free of pain.

Happiness as enjoyment. Hedonism, the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, proposes that happiness is both necessary and sufficient for a good life. This happiness is understood as attitudinal pleasure or enjoyment, not merely physical sensation.

Attractions of hedonism. Hedonism's appeal lies in its flexibility, allowing for diverse models of a good life, and its emphasis on personal authority, giving individuals a say in what constitutes their well-being. It also aligns with the common-sense notion that misery detracts from a good life, while happiness enhances it.

Challenges to hedonism. Despite its attractions, hedonism faces challenges, including the paradox of hedonism (where direct pursuit of happiness can be self-defeating), the problem of evil pleasures, and the question of whether happiness is all that matters, as highlighted by thought experiments like the experience machine.

3. Desire Satisfaction Theory Links Well-being to Fulfilled Desires

The theory tells us that your life goes well for you to the extent that you get what you want.

Getting what you want. The desire satisfaction theory posits that well-being is achieved by fulfilling one's desires, whatever they may be. This theory emphasizes personal authority, allowing individuals to define their own good life based on their unique desires.

Avoiding objective values. The desire theory avoids imposing objective values, such as knowledge or virtue, and instead focuses on the subjective experience of desire fulfillment. It also aligns with the intuition that something can only be good for us if we are motivated to pursue it.

Problems for the desire theory. However, the desire theory faces challenges, including the possibility of desires based on false beliefs, disinterested desires, and the paradox of self-harm. It also struggles to account for the value of autonomy and the importance of life's trajectory.

4. Moral Reasoning Requires Sound Logic and True Premises

Good reasoning, in ethics as elsewhere, must avoid false beliefs if we are to have any confidence in its conclusions.

Arguments and validity. Moral reasoning involves constructing arguments, which are chains of thought where reasons (premises) support a conclusion. A valid argument is one where the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

Soundness and truth. A sound argument is both valid and has true premises. Sound arguments are the gold standard of good reasoning, as they guarantee the truth of their conclusions.

Avoiding errors. To engage in good moral reasoning, it's crucial to avoid false beliefs and ensure that the logic of our arguments is rigorous and error-free. This involves carefully examining premises and identifying potential fallacies in reasoning.

5. Religion Offers Guidance, but Morality Can Stand Alone

Religious belief is needed for moral motivation.

Morality and religion. Religion has historically been a popular source of morality, with many people turning to religious texts and leaders for guidance. However, the relationship between morality and religion is complex and multifaceted.

Three assumptions. Three common assumptions about the connection between morality and religion are:

• Religious belief is needed for moral motivation
• God is the creator of morality
• Religion is an essential source of moral guidance

Critiques of the assumptions. While religion can provide moral motivation and guidance, morality can exist independently of religious belief. The Divine Command Theory, which posits that morality is based on God's commands, faces challenges related to the arbitrariness of divine decrees.

6. Natural Law Theory Grounds Morality in Human Nature

Actions are right just because they are natural, and wrong just because they are unnatural.

Human nature as a guide. Natural law theory proposes that morality is grounded in human nature, with actions being right if they align with our natural purposes and wrong if they deviate from them. This theory seeks to provide an objective basis for morality, independent of personal opinions or cultural norms.

Two conceptions of human nature:

• Innate traits: What we are born with
• Shared traits: What all humans have in common

Problems with the conceptions. However, defining human nature proves challenging, as both innate and shared traits can be problematic as a basis for morality. The theory also struggles to account for the morality of actions that frustrate our natural purposes.

7. Egoism Prioritizes Self-Interest, but Altruism Persists

All human actions are aimed at avoiding some personal loss or gaining some personal benefit (or both), either in the short run or in the long term (or both).

Psychological egoism. Psychological egoism claims that all human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest, even those that appear altruistic. This theory challenges the existence of genuine altruism, where actions are performed solely for the benefit of others.

Arguments for egoism. Arguments for psychological egoism often point to the fact that people expect to benefit from their actions, even if the benefit is simply a feeling of satisfaction or the avoidance of guilt. However, these arguments can be interpreted in different ways.

Challenges to egoism. Challenges to egoism come from examples of self-sacrificial behavior, where individuals prioritize the well-being of others over their own. The existence of altruistic motivation remains a point of contention.

8. Consequentialism Focuses on Maximizing Overall Good

Do all the good you can, by all the means you can, in all the ways you can, in all the places you can, at all the times you can, to all the people you can, as long as ever you can.

The ends justify the means. Consequentialism, particularly utilitarianism, asserts that the morality of an action depends solely on its consequences. The goal is to maximize overall well-being, even if it requires sacrificing individual interests or violating conventional moral norms.

Measuring well-being. Utilitarianism faces challenges in measuring and comparing well-being across individuals and situations. It also struggles to account for the intrinsic value of justice and the potential for injustice in maximizing overall happiness.

Demandingness and impartiality. Utilitarianism can be very demanding, requiring constant efforts to improve the world and a willingness to sacrifice personal interests. It also emphasizes impartiality, treating everyone's well-being as equally important.

9. Kantian Ethics Emphasizes Fairness, Respect, and Duty

Always treat a human being (yourself included) as an end, and never as a mere means.

Rationality and autonomy. Kantian ethics emphasizes the importance of rationality and autonomy, arguing that these traits give human beings inherent dignity and moral worth. The Principle of Humanity requires us to treat all rational beings as ends in themselves, never merely as means to our own goals.

The good will. Kant believed that the only thing that is valuable, no matter what, is the good will. The good will is the ability to reliably know what your duty is, and a steady commitment to doing your duty for its own sake.

Challenges to Kantian ethics. Kantian ethics faces challenges related to the vagueness of the Principle of Humanity, the difficulty of determining just deserts, and the question of whether we are truly autonomous. It also struggles to account for the moral status of those who lack rationality and autonomy.

10. Social Contract Theory Justifies Morality Through Agreement

Actions are morally right just because they are permitted by rules that free, equal, and rational people would agree to live by, on the condition that others obey these rules as well.

Cooperation and the state of nature. Social contract theory proposes that morality is based on a social contract that rational individuals would agree to in order to escape the state of nature, a condition of lawlessness and constant competition. This contract establishes rules for cooperation and mutual benefit.

Advantages of contractarianism. Contractarianism offers a method for justifying moral rules, explaining the objectivity of morality, and justifying a basic moral duty to obey the law. It also provides a framework for understanding civil disobedience.

Problems and prospects. However, contractarianism faces challenges related to the role of consent, disagreement among contractors, and the scope of the moral community. It also struggles to account for the moral status of those who are not party to the contract.

11. Ethical Pluralism Acknowledges Multiple Moral Principles

We are sometimes permitted to break the moral rules.

Beyond monism. Ethical pluralism rejects the idea that morality can be reduced to a single, supreme principle. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of multiple fundamental moral rules, such as fidelity, justice, beneficence, and nonmaleficence.

Prima facie duties. W.D. Ross's ethic of prima facie duties proposes that these moral rules are not absolute, but rather represent excellent, nonabsolute, permanent reasons for action. These duties can conflict, requiring us to weigh their importance in specific situations.

Challenges for pluralism. Ethical pluralism faces challenges in providing guidance for resolving moral conflicts and in justifying the fundamental moral rules. It also struggles to account for the phenomenon of moral regret.

12. Moral Skepticism Challenges the Objectivity of Ethics

If God is dead, then everything is permitted.

Doubts about morality. Moral skepticism questions the existence of objective moral standards, suggesting that morality may be a human invention or a matter of personal or cultural opinion. This skepticism can take the form of moral nihilism, which denies the existence of any moral truths, or ethical relativism, which claims that moral standards are relative to individuals or societies.

Arguments against objectivity. Arguments against moral objectivity often point to the existence of moral disagreement, the lack of scientific evidence for moral values, and the potential for objectivity to support dogmatism and intolerance. However, these arguments face challenges of their own.

The status of morality. Ultimately, the question of whether morality is objective, subjective, or illusory remains a central debate in ethics. Exploring these different perspectives can deepen our understanding of the nature of morality and its role in our lives.

Last updated: April 9, 2025