The Injustice of Place

1. America's most disadvantaged places are internal colonies marked by deep inequality.

What becomes abundantly clear as we travel across the country to see America’s most deeply disadvantaged places firsthand is that they are often home not only to desperate poverty but also to considerable wealth.

Deep disadvantage defined. The Index of Deep Disadvantage measures communities by combining income poverty, health outcomes (low birth weight, life expectancy), and intergenerational mobility. This multidimensional view reveals places where life chances are severely hindered, often unfairly. These places are concentrated in specific regions like Appalachia, South Texas, and the Cotton Belt.

Paradox of wealth. Contrary to popular belief, these deeply disadvantaged places are not uniformly poor. They often contain pockets of significant wealth, remnants of historical elites who profited from resource extraction and human exploitation. This stark inequality is a defining feature, sometimes exceeding that found in major cities like Los Angeles or New York.

More than just poverty. The term "deep disadvantage" implies an injustice, highlighting that people are held back by multiple, interconnected factors beyond just a lack of income. The index captures this complexity, showing that these communities face systemic challenges woven into their social and institutional fabric.

2. Historical exploitation, not just geology, created these internal colonies.

To understand the challenges facing a place of deep disadvantage, the first step is to learn about its past.

Geology enabled, not determined. While rich natural resources like fertile soil, coal seams, or aquifers were present, they were not sufficient to create the vast industries that emerged. This required the acquisition of land, capital, technology, access to markets, and, crucially, an ample supply of exploitable cheap labor.

Moments of transformation. Specific historical moments catalyzed the shift to intensive extraction:

• Eli Whitney's cotton gin sparked the cotton rush in the South.
• Frank Mandeville Rogers's bright leaf tobacco experiment revived the Pee Dee economy.
• T. C. Nye's success with Bermuda onions spurred irrigated farming in South Texas.
• Jedediah Hotchkiss's discovery of coal outcroppings led to the Appalachian coal boom.

Building wealth on backs. In each case, the goal of the landowning or capitalist class was to build vast wealth through profound human exploitation, a pattern that emerged or flourished in the late 19th or early 20th century, linking these regions to national and global markets until automation and competition led to decline in the 1960s.

3. Separate and unequal schooling is a persistent legacy of the past.

The failure of separate schools in America is that they have never been even close to equal.

Historical underinvestment. In regions like eastern Kentucky, education was historically underfunded because industries like coal demanded strong backs, not keen minds. Spending varied dramatically, with poor, rural districts receiving significantly less funding than wealthier ones.

Jim Crow in education. In the Cotton Belt and South Texas, school inequality took the form of legally sanctioned separate and drastically unequal schools before Brown v. Board. Funding for Black schools was diverted to white schools, facilities were inferior, teachers were underpaid and less trained, and school years were shortened to ensure labor availability.

Post-Brown resegregation. After Brown, white resistance led to the creation of private "segregation academies," often built with public funds and supported by groups like the Citizens' Councils. In South Texas, de facto segregation persisted through tracking and informal quotas. This resegregation continues today, hindering educational progress for Black and Hispanic children.

4. A tradition of violence, rooted in subjugation, continues to plague these regions.

Lynchings were built into the very fabric of Cotton Belt society, serving an explicit goal of racial subjugation.

Historical function of violence. In the Cotton Belt, where Black populations often vastly outnumbered whites, violence, particularly lynching, was a tool used by the white minority to maintain control and suppress any challenge to the racial hierarchy or economic progress by Black Americans. Events like the Elaine Massacre and the Leflore Massacre illustrate this brutal reality.

Violence as a present-day issue. Today, interpersonal violence, especially gun violence, remains significantly higher in many deeply disadvantaged places, particularly in the Cotton Belt and Appalachia, compared to the national average. This is not solely an urban problem.

Linking past and present. Research shows a direct link between historical violence (like lynchings) and contemporary homicide rates. The sense of blocked opportunity and lack of legal protection, historically and currently, can incite violence within oppressed communities, creating a cycle where violence hinders mobility, which in turn fuels more violence.

5. The collapse of social infrastructure contributes to community crises like drug epidemics.

When the social infrastructure gets degraded, the consequences are unmistakable.

Loss of shared spaces. In places like Clay County, Kentucky, residents lament the loss of community spaces like movie theaters, bowling alleys, and parks. These places, which sociologist Eric Klinenberg calls "social infrastructure," are vital for building social bonds and creating a civic safety net.

"Nothing to do but drugs." The decline of social infrastructure is linked by residents to the opioid crisis. When there are few places for people, especially young people, to gather and engage in positive activities, the allure of drugs increases.

Impact on social cohesion. The loss of shared spaces leads to social isolation, mistrust, and a weakening of community ties. This makes communities more vulnerable to crises like addiction, as the informal support networks that could help people are diminished.

6. Entrenched public corruption hinders progress and perpetuates elite control.

Corruption is a seldom recognized form of exploitation in which an elite few are allowed to live off the spoils of public office and to preserve the status quo.

Deep historical roots. In places like Clay County, Kentucky, a corrupt political elite, often tied to early economic power structures (like salt mining), has controlled local government for centuries, using patronage and vote buying to maintain power and benefit themselves.

Modern manifestations. Corruption persists today, ranging from illegal gambling schemes and embezzlement of public funds (like the Mississippi welfare scandal) to demanding kickbacks for contracts and using public office to facilitate drug dealing.

Stifling development. Corruption acts as a "millstone" around a community's neck, hindering economic growth and preventing investment in public goods like schools and infrastructure. It ensures that resources are captured by a few, perpetuating disadvantage for the many.

7. Structural racism, often invisible in policy, deepens disadvantage in crises.

The very government agencies responsible for helping Americans recover from disasters are exacerbating preexisting inequalities, not reducing them.

Disparate impact. Policies that appear color-blind can have profoundly racist outcomes due to historical inequalities. In Marion County, South Carolina, FEMA policies for disaster relief disproportionately harmed Black residents after floods because they were more likely to live on "heir's property" without formal titles or in homes deemed "worthless" by market standards.

Beyond disaster relief. Structural racism is embedded in numerous systems:

• Discriminatory lending practices and higher costs for mortgages and insurance for Black homeowners.
• Higher auto insurance rates in predominantly Black communities.
• Misdiagnosis and unequal treatment in healthcare.

Toxic alchemy. The persistence of disadvantage is often a result of a combination of government policy, market forces, and preexisting disparities in wealth and resources. This "invisible hand" of structural racism pushes outcomes in a single direction, deepening inequalities.

8. Revolt and violent retribution are recurring patterns in internal colonies.

Revolt and retribution can be seen as a stage in the life cycle of every internal colony we discuss in this book.

Resistance emerges. Facing extreme exploitation and subjugation, oppressed groups periodically revolt, demanding better conditions, fair treatment, and political power. Examples include the Harlan County miners' strike, the Southern Tenant Farmers Union's fight against planters, and the civil rights movement in the Cotton Belt.

Retribution is swift and severe. Those in power respond to these challenges with violent and systemic retribution to maintain control. This includes:

• Coal operators using armed guards and intimidation against striking miners.
• Planters evicting and terrorizing unionized tenant farmers.
• White citizens and law enforcement using violence and legal maneuvers against civil rights activists.
• Anglo elites using economic pressure and political investigations against Chicano leaders.

Costs of challenging power. While revolts have led to significant gains (like voting rights and unionization), they have come at a high cost, often resulting in violence, economic hardship, and the undermining of new leaders.

9. Advantaged places often lack the extreme inequality and historical exploitation seen elsewhere.

What is striking about these landscapes is, well, nothing.

Contrast in landscape. Unlike the internal colonies marked by symbols of single-commodity economies and stark divisions, the most advantaged places, often in the upper Midwest, are characterized by a lack of visual extremes and a sense of uniformity. Farmsteads are modest, towns are functional, and there are few imposing mansions.

Different historical trajectory. These areas were often settled by white immigrants who acquired land through the Homestead Act, a policy denied to most southern Blacks. While not without their own historical injustices (like the displacement of Native Americans and exploitation of migrant labor), they generally lack the deep, centuries-old history of extreme exploitation of a large, subjugated population tied to a single export commodity.

Characteristics of advantage. These places tend to have:

• Low rates of poverty and inequality.
• High rates of health and life expectancy.
• Strong intergenerational mobility.
• Robust social infrastructure and high social capital.
• Low rates of corruption and violence.

This suggests that social leveling and widespread opportunity, rather than extreme wealth accumulation built on exploitation, are key drivers of well-being.

10. Healing requires confronting historical legacies and addressing structural injustices.

It is beyond time to come to terms with these injustices.

Address the legacies. Moving forward requires acknowledging and actively addressing the historical roots of disadvantage. This means tackling the mechanisms that perpetuate inequality: unequal education, violence, lack of social infrastructure, corruption, and structural racism.

Principles for action:

• End separate and unequal schooling through equitable funding, fair hiring practices, and renewed efforts toward integration.
• Spark mobility to end violence by creating real economic opportunities and investing in proven anti-violence interventions.
• Invest in inclusive social infrastructure that brings communities together across class and racial lines.
• Root out corruption through increased transparency, accountability, and support for ethical local leadership.
• Make structural racism visible and confront it through audits of policies and regulations across all levels of government.
• Bring supply chains home and support diverse local economies that offer living wages and opportunities for advancement.

Hope in local leaders. Despite the systemic challenges, many deeply disadvantaged communities have passionate local leaders fighting for a better future. Supporting these efforts and providing necessary resources, while addressing the deep structural issues, is essential for healing America's internal colonies and building a more just nation.

Last updated: May 4, 2025