The Making of Asian America

1. Early Asian Presence in the Americas: Beyond the United States

Asian American history begins long before the United States was even a country and has its roots in world history.

Global Connections. The story of Asians in the Americas begins not with the United States, but with the Spanish Empire. As early as the 16th century, Spanish galleons transported Asian sailors, servants, and slaves from the Philippines to Mexico, creating the first Asian communities in the Americas. This early migration, often overlooked, highlights the interconnectedness of Asia and the Americas through European colonization and global trade.

• Manila galleons: Spanish trading ships that connected Asia and the Americas
• Los Chinos: Collective term for early Asian migrants in New Spain (Mexico)
• Diverse origins: Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, and South Asians were among the first to arrive

Beyond the U.S. Borders. These early Asian communities in Latin America, often forgotten in U.S.-centric narratives, demonstrate that Asian migration to the Americas is a much broader and older phenomenon than commonly understood. They worked as fishermen, farmers, laborers, and merchants, and some even rose to positions of prominence in their communities.

• Acapulco: Major port of entry for Asians in New Spain
• Mirrha-Catarina de San Juan: A Chinese slave who became a revered holy woman in Mexico
• La China Poblana: An iconic symbol of Mexican womanhood inspired by Mirrha

Early Encounters. The early presence of Asians in the Americas also shaped the ways in which Europeans and Americans viewed Asia and Asians. These early encounters, often marked by exploitation and exoticization, laid the groundwork for later patterns of racism and discrimination.

• European fascination with Asia: Spices, silks, and other goods
• Columbus's search for Asia: Led to the "discovery" of America
• Afong Moy: The first recorded Chinese woman in the U.S., displayed as an exotic curiosity

2. The "Coolie" Trade: A Dark Chapter of Exploitation

The stereotype of Asian workers as coolies, cheap workers who drive down wages, take away jobs, and are servile pawns of factory owners and greedy capitalists, has a long history.

Indentured Labor. The end of the African slave trade created a demand for cheap labor in the Americas. This led to the rise of the "coolie" trade, which brought hundreds of thousands of South Asian and Chinese laborers to the Caribbean and Latin America under exploitative contracts.

• South Asian indentured laborers: Primarily to British West Indies
• Chinese coolies: Primarily to Cuba and Peru
• "New form of slavery": Characterized by abuse, coercion, and high mortality rates

Horrific Conditions. Coolies faced brutal conditions on plantations and in mines, often working long hours for little pay. They were subjected to physical violence, disease, and sexual exploitation. The coolie trade was largely unregulated and characterized by a high level of abuse.

• "Devil ships": Overcrowded and unsanitary ships that transported coolies
• "Pigpens": Holding areas where coolies were kept before being sold
• "Slaves all but in name": Coolies in Cuba were treated like slaves

Legacy of the Coolie. The stereotype of the Asian coolie as a cheap, servile worker has had a lasting impact on how Asian immigrants have been viewed in the Americas. This stereotype was used to justify discrimination and violence against Asian immigrants in the United States.

• Fuel for anti-Asian movements: Used to justify discrimination and violence
• Distinction from free immigration: Important to distinguish from free Asian immigration to the U.S.
• "New form of slavery": A term used to describe the coolie system

3. Gold Mountain Dreams: Chinese Immigration to the U.S.

They have come in search of work, economic opportunity, freedom from persecution, and new beginnings that have symbolized the “American Dream” for so many newcomers.

The Lure of Gold. The California Gold Rush in 1848 drew the first large wave of Chinese immigrants to the United States. They came seeking fortune and a better life, calling the U.S. "Gold Mountain" (Gum Saan).

• Credit-ticket system: How most Chinese paid for their passage
• Sojourners: Many intended to return home after making their fortune
• Transpacific networks: Established by labor recruiters, steamship companies, and gam saan jong (Gold Mountain firms)

Beyond the Goldfields. Chinese immigrants worked in a variety of industries, including railroad construction, agriculture, and manufacturing. They also established small businesses like laundries and restaurants, often in Chinatowns.

• Central Pacific Railroad: Chinese laborers were essential to its construction
• Agriculture: Chinese immigrants transformed California's farmland
• Laundries and restaurants: Common occupations for Chinese immigrants

Transnational Families. Many Chinese immigrants were men who left their wives and children behind in China. They sent remittances home and maintained strong ties to their families and villages.

• Split households: Fathers worked in the U.S., while mothers and children remained in China
• Letters and remittances: Maintained connections across the Pacific
• Transnational family patterns: Shaped by immigration laws and economic opportunities

4. "The Chinese Must Go!": The Anti-Chinese Movement

The history of Asian Americans is thus also a history of how race works in the United States.

Racial Prejudice. The arrival of Chinese immigrants in the U.S. sparked a violent anti-Chinese movement fueled by economic anxieties, racial prejudice, and fears of cultural difference.

• "Coolie" stereotype: Used to portray Chinese as cheap, unfree labor
• "Yellow Peril": Fear of an Asian invasion and cultural corruption
• "Despised minority": Chinese immigrants were seen as a single, monolithic group

Violence and Discrimination. Chinese immigrants faced widespread discrimination, harassment, and violence. They were driven out of towns, lynched, and denied basic rights.

• Foreign miner's tax: Targeted Chinese miners
• Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882: Barred Chinese laborers from entering the U.S.
• "Gatekeeping nation": The U.S. became a nation that actively restricted immigration

Resisting Exclusion. Despite the discrimination they faced, Chinese immigrants fought for their rights in the courts, in the workplace, and on the streets.

• Mary Tape: Fought for her daughter's right to attend public school
• Wong Kim Ark: Affirmed birthright citizenship for all persons born in the U.S.
• Wong Chin Foo: Spoke out against the Chinese exclusion laws

5. The "Yellow Peril" and Japanese Exclusion

Broadly speaking, the concept of race has been used to divide humanity into distinct groups.

The Rise of Japan. Japan's growing power in the late 19th and early 20th centuries fueled fears of a "Yellow Peril," a supposed threat from Asia that would overwhelm the West.

• Russo-Japanese War: Japan's victory over Russia heightened fears
• "Yellow Peril" literature: Popularized fears of an Asian invasion
• "Model minority" vs. "perpetual foreigner": Shifting stereotypes of Asian Americans

Japanese Exclusion. The anti-Japanese movement in the U.S. led to discriminatory laws and practices that targeted Japanese immigrants.

• Gentlemen's Agreement of 1908: Restricted Japanese immigration
• Alien Land Laws: Prohibited Japanese immigrants from owning land
• Picture brides: Japanese women who came to the U.S. to marry men they had never met

The Coolie Label. The stereotype of the Asian coolie was used to justify the exclusion of Japanese immigrants, who were seen as a threat to white workers and American society.

• Economic competition: Japanese were seen as cheap labor
• Racial inferiority: Japanese were deemed incapable of assimilation
• Sexual danger: Japanese men were seen as a threat to white women

6. Korean and South Asian Immigration: Colonialism and Resistance

The history of Asian Americans is lastly a history of America in a global age.

Colonialism and Migration. Korean and South Asian immigration to the U.S. was shaped by the legacies of colonialism and the search for labor.

• Korean immigration: Fueled by Japanese colonization and economic hardship
• South Asian immigration: Fueled by British colonial rule and economic dislocation
• Indentured labor: South Asians were sent to British colonies as indentured laborers

Resistance and Nationalism. Korean and South Asian immigrants were not passive victims. They actively resisted colonial rule and fought for independence in their homelands.

• Korean nationalism: Led to the formation of organizations and protests
• South Asian nationalism: Led to the Ghadar Party and other revolutionary movements
• Transnational activism: Connected homeland politics to struggles in the U.S.

Unequal Status. Despite their activism, Korean and South Asian immigrants faced discrimination and exclusion in the U.S.

• "Hindu invasion": South Asians were targeted by anti-immigrant sentiment
• "Oriental" stereotypes: Koreans and South Asians were lumped together with other Asians
• Exclusion laws: South Asians were barred from entering the U.S.

7. World War II: A Turning Point for Asian Americans

Race has never been just a matter of black and white in the United States.

Japanese American Incarceration. The attack on Pearl Harbor led to the mass removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans, including U.S. citizens, in the name of "military necessity."

• Executive Order 9066: Authorized the forced removal of Japanese Americans
• Assembly centers: Temporary camps where Japanese Americans were held
• War Relocation Authority camps: Permanent camps where Japanese Americans were incarcerated

Loyalty and Resistance. Despite the injustice they faced, some Japanese Americans served in the U.S. military, while others resisted the draft and challenged the constitutionality of their incarceration.

• 442nd Regimental Combat Team: A highly decorated unit of Japanese American soldiers
• Draft resisters: Challenged the government's right to incarcerate them
• Fred Korematsu: Challenged the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066

New Opportunities. World War II also brought new opportunities for other Asian Americans, including Chinese, South Asians, Filipinos, and Koreans.

• "Good Asians": Asian Americans were seen as allies in the war against Japan
• Military service: Asian Americans served in all branches of the U.S. military
• Wartime employment: Asian Americans found jobs in shipyards and factories

8. Post-1965 Immigration: A New Era of Diversity

The making and remaking of Asian America is the story of these global journeys and histories.

Immigration Reform. The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act abolished the national origins quotas and ushered in a new era of mass immigration from Asia.

• Family reunification: Allowed immigrants to sponsor relatives
• Professional skills: Attracted highly educated and skilled workers
• Global cap: Established a numerical limit on immigration

Increased Diversity. Post-1965 immigration brought a greater diversity of Asian immigrants to the U.S., including new arrivals from China, India, the Philippines, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.

• New ethnic enclaves: Formed in cities and suburbs
• Transnational connections: Maintained with homelands
• "Model minority" stereotype: Gained traction in the media

Challenges and Opportunities. While many Asian Americans have achieved economic success, they also face challenges related to poverty, discrimination, and cultural adjustment.

• Uneven success: Asian Americans are overrepresented at both ends of the socioeconomic spectrum
• "Model minority" myth: Masks persistent inequalities and disparities
• "Perpetual foreigner" stereotype: Asian Americans are still seen as outsiders

9. Transnational Lives: Asian Americans in a Globalized World

Like many Americans today, Asian Americans live transnational lives and form their identities across national borders.

Transnationalism. Contemporary Asian Americans live transnational lives, maintaining connections to their homelands through family, business, and cultural ties.

• "Flexible citizens": Immigrants who move between countries for work and family
• "Pacific shuttle": Transpacific travel for work and family
• "Parachute kids": Children who come to the U.S. for education

Global Connections. Asian Americans are connected to their homelands through remittances, cultural practices, and political activism.

• Remittances: Sending money back home
• Transnational organizations: Connect communities across borders
• Homeland politics: Involvement in political issues in their countries of origin

New Identities. Asian Americans are creating new, multi-layered identities that reflect their experiences as racial minorities, transnational immigrants, and diasporic citizens.

• "Global Americans": Immigrants who belong to multiple communities
• Multiracial identities: Growing numbers of mixed-race Asian Americans
• "Stranger intimacy": Connections formed across racial and ethnic lines

10. The "Rise of Asian Americans": Myths and Realities

In contemporary America, Asian Americans occupy unique and constantly shifting positions between black and white, foreign and American, privilege and poverty.

Model Minority Myth. The stereotype of Asian Americans as a "model minority" has become a dominant narrative in the U.S., but it masks persistent inequalities and disparities.

• "Tiger Nation": A term used to describe the economic success of Asian Americans
• "Honorary whites": A label that suggests Asian Americans are not subject to racism
• "Culture" as a substitute for "race": Used to explain Asian American success

Persistent Inequalities. Despite their successes, Asian Americans continue to face discrimination, poverty, and limited opportunities.

• Uneven success: Asian Americans are overrepresented at both ends of the socioeconomic spectrum
• Poverty rates: Some Asian American groups have higher poverty rates than the general population
• Racial microaggressions: Asian Americans continue to be seen as outsiders

New Forms of Racism. The "rise of Asian Americans" has also been accompanied by new forms of racism that use racial difference in complicated ways.

• Color-blind racism: Claims that race no longer matters
• Cultural racism: Uses "culture" to explain group differences
• Racial microaggressions: Everyday indignities and racial slights

Last updated: January 24, 2025