The Making of Exile

1. Sindh's Partition Experience Was Distinct: Less Violence, More Tension

Yet in the weeks leading up to Partition, Sindh remained relatively free of communal violence.

A nervous peace. Unlike the horrific massacres in Punjab and Bengal, Sindh experienced comparatively less physical violence before and immediately after Partition. However, this absence of bloodshed did not equate to harmony; it was a period of intense apprehension for the Hindu minority and anticipation for the Muslim majority. Daily news of violence elsewhere fueled fear, creating a "nervous peace" where underlying tensions simmered.

Minority vulnerability. Hindus and Sikhs constituted less than 30% of Sindh's population. While Punjab and Bengal saw roughly equal divisions of communities, making them both victims and perpetrators, in Sindh, the potential victims of communal violence were overwhelmingly Hindu and Sikh. This demographic reality shaped the nature of fear and insecurity.

Subtle forms of pressure. Even without widespread physical attacks, Hindus faced increasing harassment and discrimination. This included:

• Refusal by Muslim peasants to work Hindu-owned land.
• Forcible occupation of Hindu agricultural land and standing crops.
• Social boycotts by Muslim service providers (barbers, washermen).
• Pressure on Hindu businesses to hire Muslim employees.
• Rumors and intimidation tactics.

This climate of fear and marginalization, rather than immediate mass violence, characterized Sindh's initial steps towards Partition.

2. British Rule Reshaped Power, Fueling Hindu-Muslim Strain

This reversal of the power equation – with the once-restrained Hindus now enjoying power out of proportion to their small numbers, and the Muslims, who had ruled the province for centuries, now on the back foot – had serious implications for Sindh as a whole.

Centuries of coexistence. For 11 centuries before British rule, Hindus lived as a minority under Muslim rulers in Sindh, largely confined to trade and administration, while Muslims dominated landholding and the countryside. This relationship was complex, blending syncretism (shared Sufi traditions, worship at common shrines) with restrictions on Hindus (land ownership, public religious display, fear of conversion).

Colonial disruption. British rule (from 1843) dramatically altered this balance. Hindus, adapting quickly to Western education and new opportunities, gained dominance in:

• Land ownership (controlling over 42% by 1900).
• Administration and judiciary (cornering senior posts).
• Education (dominating schools and colleges).
• Global trade (Sindhworkis).

Muslims, slower to adapt to the new system, saw their traditional power bases (landholding, traditional education) erode, leading to resentment.

Stereotypes hardened. The economic and social shift fueled mutual stereotypes: Hindus viewed Muslims as backward 'jats', while Muslims saw Hindus as avaricious 'vaanios'. This growing divide, exacerbated by religious revivalist movements (Arya Samaj, Tabligh) and political communalization (separation of Sindh from Bombay, Masjid Manzilgah controversy), laid the groundwork for future conflict.

3. Muhajir Influx Overwhelmed Sindh, Sparking Conflict Over Resources

By the first week of June 1947, there had been reports of communal violence in several parts of northern India – in Bihar and the United Provinces (UP), in Delhi and Calcutta, in Lahore and Amritsar.

A new destination. As violence raged in other parts of India, particularly Punjab, Muslim refugees ("muhajirs") began pouring into Pakistan. Sindh, with its relative calm, food surplus, and Karachi as the new capital, became a primary destination, especially for non-Punjabi Muslims. This influx started even before Partition, notably with refugees from Bihar.

Strain on resources. Karachi, designated Pakistan's capital, was ill-equipped to handle the sudden arrival of hundreds of thousands of refugees and the entire central government machinery. This led to:

• Severe housing shortages.
• Soaring prices for essential goods.
• Overcrowded transit camps with poor sanitation.

The Sindh government struggled to provide accommodation and basic amenities, quickly becoming overwhelmed.

Conflict over property. Desperate for housing, many muhajirs began forcibly occupying properties belonging to Hindus, who were often perceived as temporary residents or even disloyal. This practice, initially spontaneous, was later formalized by the Sindh government's requisitioning of "empty" Hindu houses, further alienating the Hindu community and becoming a major source of tension between muhajirs and Sindhi Hindus, and later, between muhajirs and Sindhi Muslims.

4. The Karachi Pogrom: A Calculated Shock to Force Exodus

The Karachi pogrom created panic among the Hindus who had continued to live in the city; news of this violence also sent shockwaves among Hindus all over Sindh.

Boiling point. The simmering frustration of muhajirs over poor living conditions and the perceived reluctance of Sindhi Hindus to leave boiled over in early January 1948. A section of muhajirs, believing that Sindhi Hindus needed a "jolt" to migrate, planned a deliberate act of violence.

The catalyst. The arrival of Labana Sikhs from North Sindh on January 6, coupled with inflammatory rumors (like the alleged desecration of the Ajmer dargah and the deportation of a muhajir leader), provided the immediate trigger. A large mob attacked the Akal Bhunga gurudwara, killing Sikhs inside.

Widespread violence. The violence quickly spread across Karachi, targeting Hindu homes, shops, and institutions. Looting was rampant, often facilitated by trucks, indicating premeditation. While police and military were eventually deployed, their response was sometimes slow or perceived as complicit, fueling Hindu distrust.

The last straw. Although casualty figures vary, the scale and deliberate nature of the Karachi pogrom, following the earlier violence in Quetta and Hyderabad, shattered any remaining sense of security for Hindus across Sindh. It confirmed their fears and became the decisive factor compelling mass migration, even for those who had previously resisted leaving.

5. Loss of 'Izzat' (Honor) Became a Primary Driver for Hindu Migration

Not that many people had been killed, but the entire city had been completely looted. […] Enough! Now Sindh was no longer habitable for us. Death was better than spending the rest of our lives being dishonoured, but the Muslims had refused to unleash death on us.

Beyond physical safety. While fear of violence was a significant factor, for many Sindhi Hindus, particularly the middle and upper classes, the decision to migrate was deeply tied to the concept of 'izzat' (honor or social prestige). Having enjoyed a position of influence and dominance in Sindh for centuries, their status was rapidly eroded after Partition.

Erosion of status. The shift in power dynamics meant Hindus were no longer indispensable or respected in the same way. Instances of discrimination, harassment, and the open contempt from some Muslims (both Sindhi and muhajir) were perceived as direct assaults on their community's honor. The inability to "hold their heads high" in their own homeland became unbearable.

Poverty and dependence. For a community that highly valued wealth and self-reliance, the loss of property and livelihood was a major blow to self-esteem and izzat. Being reduced to accepting government doles or relying on the charity of others was deeply humiliating for many, reinforcing their sense of diminished status.

This profound sense of dishonor, coupled with the realization that their former status could not be regained in Pakistan, propelled many Hindus to seek a new life in India, where they hoped to rebuild not just their wealth, but their izzat.

6. Arrival in India Brought Disorientation and Harsh Camp Realities

When we reached the platform, the shewadharis didn’t behave properly with us. There were far too many people who had arrived, and the volunteers could not manage.

Overwhelmed reception. While some early arrivals received sympathetic help, the sheer volume of refugees, especially after January 1948, overwhelmed reception facilities in India. Docks and railway stations became overcrowded transit points, often lacking basic amenities.

Lack of choice. Refugees often had little say in their destination. They were directed to camps, sometimes forcibly, regardless of their preferences or connections. This lack of agency added to their disorientation and frustration.

Deplorable camp conditions. Many refugee camps, often repurposed military barracks, were severely overcrowded and lacked basic infrastructure:

• Insufficient space and lack of privacy (gunny sack walls).
• Poor sanitation (few toilets/taps, overflowing drains).
• Lack of electricity, proper shelter from weather.
• Prevalence of diseases (TB, dysentery).
• Theft and interpersonal conflict among residents.

These harsh conditions contrasted sharply with the idealized image of India as a welcoming haven, leading to disillusionment among the refugees.

7. Sindhi Resilience: Rebuilding Lives Through Enterprise and Adaptation

They have rehabilitated themselves. There is widespread testimony that the Sind refugees in general are very hard-working people.

The "never say die" spirit. Despite immense trauma and hardship, Sindhi Hindus demonstrated remarkable resilience and determination to rebuild their lives. Stripped of their assets and social standing, they leveraged their inherent entrepreneurial spirit.

New livelihoods. Many turned to small trades and businesses, often starting with very little. This included:

• Hawking goods on trains and footpaths.
• Setting up small shops and cottage industries (making pickles, papads, etc.).
• Taking on jobs, sometimes even manual labor despite cultural aversion.

Their willingness to work hard, take risks, and adapt to new circumstances was crucial for their economic recovery.

Community support and philanthropy. While facing external challenges, the community also mobilized internally. Pre-Partition settlers and wealthy philanthropists played a vital role in providing:

• Jobs and financial assistance.
• Housing (setting up cooperative societies).
• Educational and social institutions (schools, colleges, hospitals).

This internal solidarity and mutual aid were key to collective rehabilitation.

A blessing in disguise? For many, the upheaval, while painful, also became a catalyst for new opportunities. Freed from traditional constraints and geographical limitations, some found greater success and mobility in India and abroad than they might have in Sindh, leading some to view Partition, in retrospect, as a "blessing in disguise."

8. Women's Lives Were Profoundly Transformed by Displacement

Sindhi Hindu women found their world especially transformed after Partition.

Shattered seclusion. Before Partition, many Sindhi Hindu women, particularly from the middle and upper classes, lived relatively secluded lives, often observing purdah. Their primary sphere was the home, with education being a key asset for marriage.

Forced into the public. Displacement thrust women into the public domain:

• Arduous journeys, sometimes without male escorts.
• Lack of privacy in overcrowded camps.
• Necessity of seeking housing and livelihoods outside the home.

This shattered traditional norms and forced them to navigate unfamiliar public spaces and roles.

New roles and independence. Economic hardship compelled many women to become breadwinners, taking on jobs (teaching, sewing, running small home-based businesses) to support their families. This newfound financial independence, while often born of necessity, gave some women a greater sense of agency and autonomy, though it could also lead to family conflict and social stigma.

Partition marriages. Fear for daughters' safety and the uncertainty of future prospects led to a spate of hasty, sometimes ill-suited, marriages for very young girls. This added another layer of trauma, uprooting them from their natal families and forcing them to navigate exile with strangers.

9. The Indian Government's Response Was Marked by Initial Reluctance and Later Bureaucracy

However, even the limited sympathy that the state had for the Sindhis did not take long to dissipate, and some Sindhi refugees began to clash with the Bombay government and the public on a variety of issues, minor and major.

Initial hesitation. The Indian government, already grappling with the massive influx from Punjab, was initially reluctant to fully embrace refugees from Sindh, viewing their migration as less justified due to the lower scale of violence there. Gandhi and other leaders initially urged Sindhi Hindus to stay.

Forced action. The Karachi pogrom and sustained lobbying by Sindhi Congress leaders eventually compelled the government to organize evacuation and relief efforts. This included:

• Arranging free transport by ship and train.
• Setting up refugee camps.
• Providing temporary rations and doles.
• Relaxing rules for education and employment.

Bureaucracy and conflict. Despite these measures, the process was often hampered by bureaucracy, lack of resources, and a perceived lack of sympathy from officials. Conflicts arose over:

• Poor camp conditions and lack of amenities.
• Forced relocation to distant camps.
• The Bombay Refugees Act, which felt stigmatizing.
• Delays and corruption in property claims and loan disbursements.

This led to widespread disillusionment with the government and the Congress party among Sindhi refugees.

10. Cultural Identity Shifted in Exile, Leading to Assimilation and Loss

Having been citizens of pre-Independent India, and not having identified with Pakistan, Sindhis also stressed their pan-Indian identity.

Seeking acceptance. Arriving in a new land where they were often viewed as outsiders, "refugees," or even "quasi-Muslims," Sindhi Hindus felt pressure to assimilate. This was particularly true in regions with stronger Sanskritic Hindu traditions that viewed Sindhi customs (meat-eating, dress, Sufi influence) with suspicion.

Abandoning heritage. To gain acceptance and shed the stigma, many actively suppressed aspects of their Sindhi identity:

• Adopting local dress and customs.
• Learning regional languages and Hindi.
• Critically, neglecting the Sindhi language, especially for younger generations.
• Embracing a more orthodox, Sanskritic form of Hinduism.

This drive to assimilate, while aiding integration, led to a significant loss of cultural heritage and language for many.

Pan-Indian identity. Having identified with India before Partition, Sindhis readily embraced a pan-Indian identity, aligning with Nehruvian secularism. However, the experience of marginalization and the rise of communal politics in India also pushed some towards the Hindu right, seeking strength and acceptance in a more assertive Hindu identity.

11. Sindhi Muslims Found Themselves Marginalized in the New Nation

The marginalisation of Sindhis in trade and commerce, in the central and the state government, in the provincial civil services, in education, in culture and language – that too in their own homeland – by muhajirs and Punjabis, who treated them with condescension, created deep resentment among the Sindhi Muslims.

From hosts to sidelined. Initially welcoming muhajirs as "ansaars," Sindhi Muslims soon found themselves competing with the newcomers for resources, jobs, and political power in their own province. The muhajirs, often more urban, educated, and politically connected through the Muslim League, quickly gained dominance.

Loss of political power. Despite Sindh's early support for Pakistan, Sindhi Muslim leaders were largely excluded from key positions in the central government, which was dominated by muhajirs and Punjabis. Even within Sindh, muhajirs came to wield significant influence, particularly in urban centers.

Cultural clash. A significant cultural gulf existed between the predominantly rural, Sufi-influenced Sindhi Muslims and the urban, often more orthodox, Urdu-speaking muhajirs. Muhajirs often viewed Sindhi culture and language as inferior, contributing to resentment.

Separation of Karachi. The decision to separate Karachi, Sindh's capital and economic heart, and make it a federally administered area was a major blow, symbolizing the marginalization of Sindhis in their own homeland and fueling lasting bitterness.

12. The Psychological Scars of Displacement and Loss Endured

Yet there were some Sindhis who remained outside the circle of those who were able to rebuild their lives in India, Sindhis who keenly felt the loss of their homes, their hometowns and their homeland.

Profound trauma. The experience of Partition inflicted deep psychological wounds. The sudden loss of home, community, livelihood, and social status, coupled with the arduous journey and difficult resettlement, led to widespread stress, anxiety, and disorientation.

Impact on the vulnerable. The elderly, uprooted late in life, often struggled the most, some dying shortly after migration, unable to bear the loss. The poor and uneducated also faced immense challenges in rebuilding, often remaining in precarious circumstances.

Writers as witnesses. Sindhi writers, both established and emerging, captured the
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Last updated: June 9, 2025