The New Penguin History of Canada

1. Early Canada: A Product of Geography, Trade, and Imperial Ambitions

Canada, it’s been said, has been the victim of too much geography.

Vast and Varied Landscape. Canada's immense size and diverse terrain, stretching from rainforests to arctic deserts, have profoundly shaped its history, limiting population distribution and posing administrative challenges. The Bering Strait land bridge facilitated early human migration to North America, while the ice age further isolated habitable areas.

The Fur Trade's Influence. The demand for fur, particularly beaver pelts, drove European exploration and settlement in Canada. This trade fostered a partnership between European traders and Indigenous hunters, shaping early economic and social dynamics.

European Rivalry. The competition between France and England for control of North America, fueled by the fur trade and strategic ambitions, laid the foundation for Canada's dual heritage and its complex relationship with both European powers. Champlain's establishment of Quebec in 1608 marked a pivotal moment in France's claim to the St. Lawrence River and the interior of the continent.

2. The French and English Empires in North America: Contrasting Approaches

The first colonies in North America—French, English, and Dutch—were the fruit of public purpose and private enterprise.

Different Colonial Models. The French focused on fur trade and alliances with Indigenous peoples, while the English sought agricultural settlement and territorial expansion. This led to different patterns of interaction with Native populations and distinct colonial societies.

Religious Influence. Catholicism played a central role in New France, with missionaries seeking to convert Indigenous populations and the Church exerting significant influence on colonial society. In contrast, the English colonies were more religiously diverse, with Protestantism dominating but various denominations coexisting.

Governance and Control. New France was tightly controlled by the French crown, with limited self-government. The English colonies enjoyed greater autonomy, with elected assemblies and a tradition of self-rule. This difference in governance would later contribute to tensions between the colonies and the British government.

3. The American Revolution: Reshaping British North America

The catastrophe that befell the peoples of the Americas came from Europe.

Loyalist Migration. The American Revolution led to the influx of Loyalists into British North America, reshaping the demographics and political landscape of the remaining colonies. These Loyalists, fleeing persecution and seeking to maintain their allegiance to the British crown, brought with them their values, institutions, and grievances.

Creation of New Provinces. The influx of Loyalists led to the creation of New Brunswick and the division of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada. These new provinces reflected the distinct identities and aspirations of the English-speaking Loyalists and the French-speaking Canadiens.

Seeds of Self-Government. The American Revolution also spurred demands for greater self-government in British North America. The colonists, inspired by the ideals of liberty and representation, sought to gain more control over their own affairs and reduce the influence of the British government.

4. The War of 1812: Defining the Border and Canadian Identity

The war of 1689–97 between England and France was inconclusive. In North America it changed little.

Defining the Border. The War of 1812, fought between the United States and Great Britain (and by extension, British North America), helped to solidify the border between the two countries. While the war itself was largely a stalemate, it reinforced a sense of distinct identity in British North America.

Canadian Identity. The war fostered a sense of Canadian identity, as colonists from different backgrounds united to defend their territory against American invasion. The war also solidified the alliance between the British and Indigenous peoples, who played a crucial role in defending British North America.

Economic Development. The war stimulated economic development in British North America, as the colonies were forced to become more self-sufficient in the face of American blockades. The war also led to increased British investment in the colonies, as the British government sought to strengthen its hold on the region.

5. Responsible Government and the Seeds of Confederation

The absence of any large towns or cities in northern and central North America didn’t mean that the population of the continent was insignificant, merely that it was widely dispersed.

Demands for Reform. The decades following the War of 1812 saw growing demands for political reform in British North America. Colonists sought greater control over their own affairs and an end to the influence of appointed officials.

Rebellions of 1837. Frustration with the lack of political progress led to rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada in 1837. While these rebellions were ultimately unsuccessful, they prompted the British government to send Lord Durham to investigate the situation.

Durham Report. Lord Durham's report recommended the union of Upper and Lower Canada and the introduction of responsible government, whereby the executive branch would be responsible to the elected assembly. These recommendations laid the foundation for Confederation.

6. Expansion Westward: Riel, Railways, and the National Policy

The land was vast, and the possibility of error was high.

Acquisition of Rupert's Land. The acquisition of Rupert's Land in 1869 opened up vast new territories for settlement and development. However, it also led to conflict with the Métis, who feared for their land rights and way of life.

Riel Rebellions. Louis Riel led two rebellions in the West, in 1869-70 and 1885, to protect Métis rights and assert their claims to the land. These rebellions highlighted the tensions between the Canadian government and Indigenous peoples and the challenges of westward expansion.

Railways and the National Policy. The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was a key component of the National Policy, a program designed to promote economic development and national unity. The CPR linked the eastern provinces with British Columbia, facilitating trade and settlement.

7. The Laurier Era: Prosperity, Immigration, and Imperial Tensions

With hindsight, we can see that Louis XIV and his empire were past their apogee in the 1690s.

Economic Boom. The Laurier era (1896-1911) was a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity in Canada. Wheat production soared, new industries emerged, and immigration surged.

Immigration and Western Settlement. Laurier's government actively promoted immigration to the West, attracting settlers from Europe and the United States. This led to the rapid growth of the Prairie provinces and the transformation of the Canadian West into a major agricultural region.

Imperial Politics. Despite his commitment to Canadian autonomy, Laurier faced pressure to support the British Empire, particularly in the areas of defense and foreign policy. This led to tensions between English and French Canadians, who held different views on Canada's role in the empire.

8. World War I: Canada Forges a Nation, Endures Division

For over a hundred years, from 1689 to 1815, North America was the seat of war.

Canadian Contribution. Canada's participation in World War I was a defining moment in its history. Canadian soldiers fought bravely on the Western Front, earning a reputation for courage and skill.

National Identity. The war fostered a sense of Canadian national identity, as Canadians from different backgrounds united to fight for a common cause. However, the war also exposed deep divisions within Canadian society, particularly between English and French Canadians.

Conscription Crisis. The issue of conscription, or compulsory military service, sparked a major political crisis in Canada. English Canadians largely supported conscription, while French Canadians largely opposed it. This division threatened to tear the country apart.

9. The Interwar Years: Depression, Division, and the Shadow of Europe

Objectively, the Native peoples of Canada were little touched by the peripheral activities of explorers and speculators in the sixteenth century.

Economic Hardship. The interwar years were a time of economic hardship for many Canadians. The Great Depression of the 1930s led to widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest.

Political Discontent. The Depression also fueled political discontent, as Canadians looked for new solutions to the country's economic problems. New political parties emerged, such as the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and Social Credit, challenging the traditional dominance of the Liberals and Conservatives.

The Rise of Fascism. The rise of fascism in Europe cast a long shadow over Canada. While some Canadians admired the order and discipline of fascist regimes, others were deeply concerned about the threat they posed to democracy and freedom.

10. World War II: From Colony to Global Player

The sense of a religion under threat added a new urgency to the notion of conversion and to a disregard for the abstract rights of those who ignored Christian doctrine, wilfully or not.

Canadian Contribution. Canada's participation in World War II was another defining moment in its history. Canadian soldiers fought bravely in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific, contributing significantly to the Allied victory.

Economic Transformation. The war also transformed the Canadian economy, as industries geared up to produce war materials and unemployment disappeared. Canada emerged from the war as a major industrial power.

International Recognition. Canada's contribution to the war effort earned it greater international recognition and a seat at the table in the postwar world. Canada played a key role in the founding of the United Nations and other international organizations.

11. Post-War Canada: Affluence, Discontent, and the Rise of Quebec Nationalism

The sense of a religion under threat added a new urgency to the notion of conversion and to a disregard for the abstract rights of those who ignored Christian doctrine, wilfully or not.

Post-War Prosperity. The postwar years were a time of unprecedented affluence and prosperity in Canada. The baby boom, coupled with economic growth, led to rising living standards and a sense of optimism about the future.

Social Welfare State. The government expanded the social welfare state, introducing programs such as universal healthcare and old-age pensions. These programs provided a safety net for Canadians and helped to reduce poverty and inequality.

Quebec Nationalism. Despite the prosperity and social progress, Quebec nationalism continued to grow in strength. Many French Canadians felt that their language and culture were threatened by assimilation and sought greater autonomy for Quebec.

12. Trudeau's Canada: Constitution, Culture, and a New Identity

The sense of a religion under threat added a new urgency to the notion of conversion and to a disregard for the abstract rights of those who ignored Christian doctrine, wilfully or not.

Trudeau's Vision. Pierre Elliott Trudeau, prime minister from 1968 to 1984 (with a brief interruption), sought to create a new Canadian identity based on bilingualism, multiculturalism, and individual rights. He believed that these values would unite Canadians and strengthen the country.

The Constitution Act, 1982. Trudeau's greatest achievement was the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982, which included a Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This charter guaranteed fundamental rights and freedoms to all Canadians, regardless of their background or beliefs.

Legacy of Division. Despite his accomplishments, Trudeau's legacy remains controversial. His policies alienated many Quebec nationalists, who felt that he had betrayed their aspirations for greater autonomy. The debate over Quebec's place in Canada continues to this day.

Last updated: March 17, 2025