The Rape of Nanking

1. Roots of Japanese Militarism and Expansionism

To die in the service of one’s lord was the greatest honor a samurai warrior could achieve in his lifetime.

Ancient warrior code. Japan's identity was deeply shaped by the thousand-year-old samurai system and its code, bushido, which glorified martial competition and absolute loyalty, even unto death. This ethic, initially for an elite class, permeated the culture, making self-sacrifice for the state a model for all young men. This contrasted sharply with Western military traditions, where surrender was an option, leading to vastly different casualty-to-surrender ratios in World War II.

Isolation and humiliation. Centuries of self-imposed isolation under the Tokugawa clan left Japan technologically behind the West. Commodore Perry's forceful opening in 1853 was a profound humiliation, sparking the Meiji Restoration's rapid modernization drive aimed at catching up and retaliating against Western powers. This era fueled nationalistic slogans and a determination to achieve military supremacy.

Economic pressure and expansion. The post-WWI economic downturn, coupled with a rapidly growing population and limited resources, created immense pressure. Ultranationalists argued that territorial expansion was necessary for survival, viewing China's vast lands enviously. This ideology, combined with a military culture that trained soldiers to view Chinese as subhuman, set the stage for aggressive intervention and the eventual full-scale war in 1937.

2. The Disastrous Fall of Nanking

Unable to hold the line and under pressure, Tang complied.

Strategic vulnerability. Nanking, the Nationalist capital, was geographically vulnerable, blocked by the Yangtze River on two sides. The Japanese planned a semicircular advance to trap Chinese forces against the river, cutting off escape routes. Despite its historical significance and natural defenses, the city's fate hinged on military strategy and execution.

Command chaos and retreat. Chiang Kai-shek's decision to defend Nanking but then order a last-minute retreat under Tang Sheng-chih proved catastrophic. Tang, despite vowing to fight to the death, was pressured to abandon the city. The retreat order was poorly communicated, leading to:

• Soldiers abandoning arms and equipment.
• Friendly fire incidents as troops fled.
• A desperate, chaotic rush to escape across the river.

Overwhelmed and defenseless. The Chinese army in Nanking, though numerous on paper, was ill-prepared. Many soldiers were recent, poorly trained conscripts, communication lines were severed, and officers lacked trust and coordination. When the retreat turned into a rout, tens of thousands were trapped, disarmed, and left defenseless against the invading Japanese army, paving the way for the massacre.

3. Mass Execution of POWs and Civilians

“KILL ALL CAPTIVES.”

Systematic extermination order. As Japanese troops closed in on Nanking, a chilling order, reportedly under Prince Asaka's seal, was issued: "KILL ALL CAPTIVES." This wasn't a spontaneous act but a deliberate policy, justified internally by the Japanese military as necessary to conserve food and prevent future resistance from disarmed soldiers.

Deception and mass slaughter. The Japanese used deception to round up tens of thousands of Chinese soldiers who had surrendered, promising fair treatment. Once captured and disarmed, they were herded into groups and marched to isolated areas near the city walls or the Yangtze River. The largest single execution occurred near Mufu Mountain, where an estimated 57,000 were killed.

Indiscriminate civilian murder. After the soldiers were eliminated, the Japanese turned on the civilian population. House-to-house searches for hidden soldiers became pretexts for random killings, looting, and arson. Elderly men, women, and children were shot on sight, often in the back, simply for running away or failing to understand Japanese commands. Disposal of bodies was a massive task, involving burning, burial in mass graves, and dumping into the river.

4. The Unspeakable Scale and Nature of Rape and Torture

The Rape of Nanking should be remembered not only for the number of people slaughtered but for the cruel manner in which many met their deaths.

Mass sexual violence. The Rape of Nanking included one of the largest mass rapes in history, with estimates ranging from 20,000 to 80,000 women violated. This was not merely a byproduct of war but deeply embedded in Japanese military culture, sometimes seen as a way to gain power or simply for amusement. The military policy forbidding rape often led soldiers to kill victims afterward to eliminate evidence.

Depravity and torture. The brutality extended far beyond rape and murder. Japanese soldiers inflicted unimaginable torture on both men and women:

• Live burials (some victims hacked or run over while partially buried).
• Mutilation (disembowelment, decapitation, cutting off body parts, nailing to walls).
• Death by fire (mass incineration, burning victims alive with gasoline).
• Death by ice (forcing victims into freezing water to be shot).
• Death by dogs (burying victims to the waist and letting German shepherds tear them apart).

Degradation of families. Some of the most horrific acts involved forcing family members to commit incest or killing those who refused. Women were raped in front of their families, and children were murdered for crying or simply being in the way. The sheer sadism and lack of remorse displayed by many soldiers shocked even the few Nazis present in the city.

5. The Nanking Safety Zone: A Beacon of Heroism

Dark times paralyze most people, but some very few, for reasons most of us will never understand, are able to set aside all caution and do things even they could not imagine themselves doing in ordinary times.

A sanctuary of hope. A small group of Westerners—missionaries, doctors, professors, businessmen—chose to remain in Nanking despite warnings, creating the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone. They designated a neutral area to shelter noncombatants, marked with white flags and red crosses, offering a fragile haven amidst the chaos.

Defiance and intervention. These few dozen foreigners, lacking military training, risked their lives daily to protect hundreds of thousands of Chinese refugees. They:

• Negotiated with Japanese authorities (often fruitlessly).
• Physically intervened to stop rapes, murders, and looting.
• Provided food, shelter, and medical care under extreme conditions.
• Used their foreign status (including Nazi armbands for Germans) to deter soldiers.

Documenting the horror. Crucially, the Safety Zone members meticulously documented the atrocities they witnessed in diaries, letters, and reports. This record, compiled under constant threat, became vital evidence of the massacre, ensuring that the events were not entirely lost to history despite Japanese efforts to conceal them. Their courage saved countless lives and preserved the truth.

6. The World Knew: Journalists, Films, and Intelligence

The world was not kept in the dark about the Rape of Nanking; news of the massacre continuously reached the global public while events unfolded.

Eyewitness reporting. American foreign correspondents like Frank Tillman Durdin, Archibald Steele, and C. Yates McDaniel were in Nanking during the initial days of the massacre. Their vivid, harrowing reports were published on the front pages of major U.S. newspapers, detailing the scale of the slaughter, rape, and destruction, providing the world with immediate accounts of the unfolding tragedy.

Visual evidence. American newsreel cameramen, including Norman Alley and Eric Mayell, captured footage of the Japanese attack on the USS Panay near Nanking. This film, shown in U.S. theaters, sparked outrage, though the U.S. government later censored parts of it to facilitate diplomatic resolution. Additionally, John Magee, a missionary, secretly filmed the atrocities within the Safety Zone, providing crucial visual proof of the victims' suffering.

Intelligence and cover-up. Foreign governments, particularly the U.S. and Germany, received detailed reports from their nationals in Nanking and through intercepted Japanese communications. Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki's messages revealed the government's awareness of the atrocities and its deliberate efforts to prevent foreign diplomats from returning to Nanking to witness and report on the cleanup. Despite knowing the truth, political considerations often limited the public response of foreign powers.

7. The Brutal Reality of Japanese Occupation

But signs of a brutal occupation were everywhere.

Systematic destruction and looting. After the initial massacre subsided, the Japanese military systematically looted and burned the city. One-third of Nanking and three-fourths of its stores were incinerated. Public and private property, including priceless cultural artifacts, were stolen. Foreign properties, even those of allies like Germany, were ransacked, with American property singled out for particular insult.

Economic exploitation and control. The occupation government, staffed by Chinese puppets, imposed heavy taxes and confiscated remaining wealth. Japanese military currency replaced Chinese money, draining the city's resources. The Japanese also revived the traditional baojia system to control the population, requiring strict registration and neighborhood surveillance, punishing entire groups for the actions of individuals.

Drugs, experiments, and intimidation. The occupation fostered social decay. Opium and heroin, previously underground, were openly sold and even used as payment, leading to widespread addiction and crime. The Japanese established Unit Ei 1644, a secret facility for horrific medical experiments on Chinese prisoners. The population lived under constant military intimidation, facing arbitrary punishment and violence for minor infractions.

8. Seeking Justice: Trials and Their Limitations

Unfortunately, many of the chief culprits of the Rape of Nanking—or those who might have exercised their royal authority to stop the Rape—never spent a day in court.

Nanking War Crimes Trial. After Japan's surrender, trials for Class B and C war criminals were held in Nanking. Over 1,000 witnesses testified, and evidence, including secretly preserved photographs, was presented. Key figures like Lieutenant General Tani Hisao, commander of a division involved in atrocities, were tried, found guilty, and executed, providing a measure of local justice and catharsis for the city's residents.

Tokyo War Crimes Trial (IMTFE). The International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted 28 high-ranking Japanese officials. The Rape of Nanking was a central focus, serving as a metaphor for broader Japanese wartime brutality across Asia. Safety Zone members testified, and the tribunal concluded the Japanese government was aware of the atrocities. General Matsui Iwane was held responsible and executed, though his direct culpability remains debated.

Immunity and impunity. Despite the trials, many key figures escaped justice. Prince Asaka, under whose command the "Kill All Captives" order was issued, was granted immunity due to his imperial status. Emperor Hirohito himself was exempted from trial by the U.S. government in exchange for Japan's surrender, a decision that later hindered Japan's full reckoning with its wartime past. The destruction and concealment of Japanese wartime records further obscured the extent of high-level involvement.

9. The Fate of Survivors and Foreign Helpers

Most lived in dark, squalid apartments cluttered with the debris of poverty and heavy with mildew and humidity.

Neglected survivors. After the war, the vast majority of Nanking massacre survivors received no compensation or official apology from Japan. Under the Chinese Communist government, which prioritized forging ties with Japan, their suffering was often politically sidelined. Many survivors lived in poverty, bearing physical and psychological scars, feeling betrayed by their own government's failure to demand justice or reparations.

Forgotten heroes. The foreign members of the Nanking Safety Zone, who risked everything to save lives, were largely forgotten by history. Many faced hardship after returning home, including:

• Expulsion from China by the Communist government.
• Interrogation and ostracism in their home countries (especially the Germans).
• Enduring physical and mental trauma from their experiences.
• Some suffered nervous breakdowns or died prematurely due to the stress.

Tragic ends. Figures like Minnie Vautrin, the "Living Goddess" of Ginling College, suffered a severe nervous breakdown and committed suicide years later, unable to escape the horrors she witnessed. John Rabe, the Nazi businessman who saved thousands, was persecuted in postwar Germany, his humanitarian efforts overshadowed by his party affiliation, and he died in poverty, his crucial diaries hidden for decades.

10. The "Second Rape": Denial, Censorship, and Intimidation

The Japanese government, however, has never forced itself or Japanese society to do the same.

Official denial and revisionism. Unlike Germany's postwar reckoning with the Holocaust, the Japanese government has largely avoided full responsibility for its wartime crimes. Prominent politicians and ultranationalists have repeatedly denied or minimized the Nanking massacre, claiming it was a fabrication or exaggerated, despite overwhelming evidence. This denial is seen by many as a "second rape" of the victims.

Textbook censorship. The Japanese Ministry of Education has historically censored or downplayed accounts of the Nanking massacre and other atrocities in school textbooks. This deliberate omission has left generations of Japanese schoolchildren largely ignorant of their nation's wartime actions, fostering a narrative of Japan as a victim rather than an aggressor. Brave individuals who challenge this censorship face significant opposition.

Intimidation and suppression. Those in Japan who speak out about the massacre or demand accountability face intimidation, harassment, and even violence from right-wing extremists. Veterans who confessed their roles received death threats. Mayors and politicians who acknowledged Japanese wartime guilt were forced to resign or became targets of assassination attempts, creating an atmosphere that stifles open discussion and historical truth.

Last updated: April 29, 2025