Key Takeaways
1. Russia's struggle with sovereignty and identity in the post-Soviet era
Russia is turning into a moth-eaten blanket – one with ever more holes and ever less fabric.
Loss of effective control. The collapse of the Soviet Union left Russia grappling with its new boundaries and identity. While maintaining formal power within its borders, the country has struggled to exercise effective control over its vast territory. This is evident in the deterioration of infrastructure, particularly in remote areas, where roads and public services have fallen into disrepair.
Symbolic sovereignty. To compensate for this loss of control, the Russian state has increasingly focused on symbolic displays of sovereignty. These include:
- Military parades showcasing intercontinental ballistic missiles
- Aggressive foreign policy actions, such as the annexation of Crimea
- Emphasis on traditional values and Orthodox Christianity as markers of Russian identity
However, these displays often mask the underlying weaknesses in governance and economic development, creating a disconnect between the image of a strong state and the reality of a struggling nation.
2. The weaponization of history and memory in modern Russia
The paradox and the cynicism of the situation is that modern Russian biopolitics bears no relation to biology (since it is based on wholly false assertions, such as that homosexuality is not 'normal'), nor does it improve the health of the nation, as it is accompanied by a radical cutting back of state financing of the health system and the destruction once and for all of free Soviet healthcare.
Selective interpretation of history. The Russian state has actively shaped historical narratives to support its current political agenda. This involves:
- Glorifying certain aspects of Soviet history, particularly the victory in World War II
- Downplaying or reinterpreting traumatic events, such as the Stalinist purges
- Creating a narrative of continuous Russian greatness and victimhood
Impact on society. This manipulation of history has profound effects on Russian society:
- It reinforces a sense of national pride and exceptionalism
- It justifies current policies by drawing parallels with past "glories"
- It creates a climate where critical examination of history is discouraged or even criminalized
The result is a society that struggles to confront its past honestly, hampering efforts to address ongoing issues and move forward.
3. Putin's regime: A return to authoritarianism and imperial ambitions
The Putin era is not even the repressions or the corruption or the Orthodox renaissance; it is in the imitation of all the institutions, history, memory, power itself.
Consolidation of power. Putin's leadership has been characterized by a steady erosion of democratic institutions and a concentration of power in the executive branch. Key aspects include:
- Weakening of independent media
- Marginalization of opposition figures
- Centralization of economic power among a small elite
Revival of imperial rhetoric. Putin's regime has increasingly drawn on imperial nostalgia to bolster its legitimacy:
- Emphasis on Russia's great power status
- Interventions in neighboring countries (e.g., Ukraine, Georgia)
- Promotion of the concept of a "Russian World" extending beyond current borders
This combination of authoritarianism and imperial ambition has reshaped Russia's domestic and foreign policy, often putting it at odds with the international community.
4. The impact of geopolitical events on Russian society and politics
The toxicity of Russian influence is so great that the tiniest presence needs to be cleaned up. Any hint of even the most innocent contacts with Russians leads to scandal, and the 'Russian infection' could ultimately destroy Donald Trump, already weakened and embittered as he is.
External conflicts and internal cohesion. Major geopolitical events, particularly conflicts with the West, have had a significant impact on Russian society:
- The annexation of Crimea led to a surge in patriotic sentiment
- Sanctions imposed by Western countries have reinforced the narrative of Russia under siege
- Involvement in Syria has bolstered the image of Russia as a global power
Domestic consequences. These external actions have had notable effects on internal politics:
- Increased support for Putin's leadership
- Justification for tighter control over civil society and media
- Economic challenges due to sanctions and isolation
The interplay between geopolitical events and domestic politics has become a key feature of Putin's governance strategy, often prioritizing international posturing over domestic development.
5. Russian resentment and the myth of humiliation by the West
Russia is a country which displays classic resentment. On the one hand, century after century it has witnessed various forms of class slavery, from serfdom to the Soviet propiska (permission to live in a particular city).
Historical roots. Russian resentment towards the West has deep historical roots:
- Centuries of autocratic rule and social stratification
- Persistent feeling of lagging behind Western technological and social progress
- Perception of being treated as a second-rate power despite its size and potential
Contemporary manifestations. This resentment continues to shape modern Russian politics and society:
- Narrative of Western attempts to weaken or humiliate Russia
- Justification for aggressive foreign policy as a form of "standing up" to the West
- Domestic policies framed as protecting Russian values from Western influence
The persistence of this resentment has made it a powerful tool for mobilizing public opinion and justifying both domestic and foreign policy decisions.
6. The role of propaganda and media control in shaping public opinion
The droning voice of the presenter stresses the advantages of civilization that Russia has brought to its conquered lands, creating an almost Kipling-like impression of the 'Russian man's burden'.
State control of narrative. The Russian government has exerted increasing control over media and information:
- Consolidation of major media outlets under state or state-aligned ownership
- Strict regulation of online content and social media
- Creation and promotion of patriotic content across all platforms
Impact on public discourse. This control has significant effects on public opinion and debate:
- Limited exposure to alternative viewpoints
- Reinforcement of state-approved narratives on key issues
- Creation of an information environment that supports the regime's policies
The result is a public sphere where critical voices are marginalized and state narratives dominate, making it difficult for alternative views to gain traction.
7. Confronting the legacy of Soviet repression and violence
Terror in Russia has been smeared in a sticky layer across society and across history in such a way that it appears that everyone has taken part in it and everyone is at one and the same time both guilty and not guilty.
Unresolved trauma. The legacy of Soviet-era repression continues to shape Russian society:
- Lack of comprehensive public reckoning with Stalinist crimes
- Ongoing debates about how to memorialize victims of state violence
- Persistence of authoritarian practices in governance and law enforcement
Challenges to reconciliation. Efforts to address this history face significant obstacles:
- State resistance to full accountability for past crimes
- Societal divisions over how to interpret Soviet history
- Fear of destabilizing current power structures by revisiting the past
The unresolved nature of this historical trauma contributes to ongoing societal tensions and complicates efforts at political and social reform.
8. The challenge of modernization and reform in contemporary Russia
In Russia, violence is the socially acknowledged norm, the way to solve problems and define relations, the way to act between the authorities and the people, between men and women, parents and children, teachers and pupils.
Barriers to change. Russia faces significant challenges in modernizing its economy and society:
- Entrenched interests resistant to reform
- Reliance on natural resource exports at the expense of diversification
- Cultural and institutional inertia favoring authoritarian practices
Limited reform efforts. Attempts at modernization have often been superficial or contradictory:
- Focus on technological advancement without corresponding social or political reforms
- Selective engagement with global markets while maintaining state control over key sectors
- Promotion of innovation in certain areas while stifling broader societal development
These conflicting approaches have resulted in uneven development and persistent obstacles to comprehensive modernization.
9. Russia's complex relationship with its neighboring countries
In Russia's case we can talk about a much deeper psychological mechanism – about symbolic compensation, the transfer and projection of our own complexes and frustrations onto the symbolic figure of 'the Other'.
Post-Soviet dynamics. Russia's relationships with its former Soviet neighbors are fraught with tension:
- Attempts to maintain influence over the "near abroad"
- Conflicts arising from Russian interventions (e.g., Ukraine, Georgia)
- Economic and cultural ties complicated by political disagreements
Identity and sovereignty. These relationships are deeply intertwined with questions of Russian identity:
- Concept of a shared cultural and historical space challenged by national independence movements
- Russian minority populations in neighboring countries as a source of tension
- Competing visions of regional integration (e.g., Eurasian Economic Union vs. EU association)
The complexity of these relationships reflects Russia's ongoing struggle to define its role in the post-Soviet space and its broader geopolitical identity.
10. The persistence of cultural and societal trauma in Russian consciousness
The whole of Russian society, from Putin to the humblest worker, carries with him the same amount of resentment.
Intergenerational trauma. Russian society continues to grapple with the effects of historical traumas:
- Legacy of totalitarianism and state violence
- Rapid social and economic changes following the collapse of the Soviet Union
- Persistent sense of insecurity and vulnerability to external threats
Manifestations in contemporary culture. This trauma is reflected in various aspects of Russian life:
- Prevalence of pessimism and fatalism in public discourse
- Tendency towards authoritarian solutions to social problems
- Difficulty in establishing trust in institutions and between social groups
The persistence of this cultural trauma complicates efforts at social and political reform, contributing to a cycle of authoritarian governance and societal discontent.
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FAQ
What is The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev about?
- Chronicle of Putin’s Russia: The book analyzes Russia’s return to aggressive imperialism and militarism during Vladimir Putin’s third term (2012–2018), focusing on the state’s efforts to reassert sovereignty.
- Four “Wars” Framework: Medvedev structures his analysis around four “wars” waged by the Kremlin: for space, symbols, the body, and memory, each representing a different aspect of state control.
- Historical and Cultural Context: The book situates contemporary Russian politics within a long tradition of autocracy, referencing figures like Ivan the Terrible and Stalin, and explores the psychological and cultural roots of current policies.
- Exploration of Identity and Trauma: It delves into Russia’s struggles with modernization, unresolved historical trauma, and the shaping of national identity through myth and memory.
Why should I read The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev?
- Deep Insight into Modern Russia: The book provides a nuanced understanding of Russia’s internal repression, foreign policy, and the forces driving its authoritarian turn.
- Unique Analytical Framework: Medvedev’s division of state actions into four “wars” offers a comprehensive lens for analyzing sovereignty, power, and identity in Russia.
- Historical and Cultural Depth: Readers gain an appreciation for how centuries of Russian history, culture, and political thought inform today’s events and societal dynamics.
- Context for Geopolitical Behavior: The book connects domestic issues to Russia’s confrontational stance abroad, making it essential for understanding current global affairs.
What are the key takeaways from The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev?
- State Control is Multifaceted: The Kremlin’s power extends beyond territory to symbols, bodies, and collective memory, shaping every aspect of Russian society.
- Historical Trauma Shapes Politics: Unresolved traumas from the Soviet era and earlier continue to influence Russian identity, politics, and foreign policy.
- Hybrid Warfare and Authoritarianism: Russia’s use of hybrid war, disinformation, and digital surveillance reflects a blend of traditional and modern authoritarian tactics.
- Cycle of Autocracy and Resistance: The book highlights the cyclical struggle between autocracy and attempts at freedom, with current repression echoing past patterns.
What are the four “wars” described in The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev, and what do they signify?
- War for Space: Focuses on territorial control, including battles over public spaces, militarization, and foreign interventions like Crimea and Syria.
- War for Symbols: Involves the use of rituals, military parades, and patriotic performances to shape national identity and public consciousness.
- War for the Body: Describes state regulation of private life, including laws against “gay propaganda,” control over reproduction, and the promotion of traditional values.
- War for Memory: Centers on historical revisionism, the manipulation of collective memory, and the suppression of dissenting historical interpretations to legitimize current policies.
How does Sergei Medvedev explain the annexation of Crimea in The Return of the Russian Leviathan?
- Psychological and Mythological Roots: Crimea is portrayed as a “territory of the subconscious,” embodying post-imperial resentment and a romanticized national myth.
- Break with International Norms: The annexation marked a decisive end to Russia’s post-Soviet integration with the global order, violating international law and reigniting confrontation with the West.
- Symbolic and Political Significance: Crimea became a symbol of the regime’s nationalism and militarism, crystallizing the “return of the Russian Leviathan” and the assertion of sovereignty through force and myth.
What role does Carl Schmitt’s theory of sovereignty play in The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev?
- Sovereignty as State of Exception: Medvedev uses Schmitt’s idea that the sovereign decides on the “state of emergency,” stepping outside the law to create new norms, to explain Putin’s approach.
- Legitimacy Beyond Law: The Kremlin justifies actions like the annexation of Crimea as expressions of popular will and national interest, prioritizing “substantial legitimacy” over legal norms.
- Cultural Connection: Schmitt’s theory is linked to Russian political culture, where breaking rules and asserting status are seen as marks of power, reinforcing the regime’s unpredictability and authoritarianism.
How does The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev describe Russia’s “biopolitics” or the War for the Body?
- State Regulation of Private Life: The Russian state increasingly interferes in citizens’ intimate lives, from sexual behavior to consumer habits, under the guise of “punitive hygiene.”
- Historical Parallels: Medvedev draws comparisons to Nazi and Soviet policies that controlled reproduction and punished homosexuality, showing continuity in state discipline.
- Political and Ideological Function: Biopolitics is used to assert control over the nation’s “biological capital,” prioritizing demographic growth and reinforcing conservative, authoritarian values.
What is the significance of homophobia and patriarchy in The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev?
- Homophobia as National Weakness: Medvedev argues that intense homophobia reflects a fragile national identity and fear of confronting reality.
- Patriarchy and Control of Women: The book critiques patriarchal rituals and the state’s control over women’s bodies, highlighting resistance such as feminist protests in prisons.
- Battle for Sexual Minorities’ Rights: Medvedev calls for public recognition and activism for sexual minorities, likening discrimination to antisemitism and warning against rising fascism.
How does Sergei Medvedev analyze the culture of violence in Russia in The Return of the Russian Leviathan?
- Violence as Social Norm: Violence permeates Russian society, from families and schools to the army and police, serving as a method of socialization and control.
- State Violence and Repression: The state legitimizes power through physical force, torture, and unjust sentences, with leaders like Putin embodying a cult of strength.
- Cycle of Silence and Fear: Victims’ reluctance to speak out perpetuates a cycle of violence and authoritarian power, described as the “silence of the lambs.”
What is the “war for memory” in The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev, and why is it important?
- Historical Revisionism: Russian authorities rewrite history to legitimize current policies, changing the status of Crimea and downplaying Soviet-era crimes.
- Contested Public Spaces: Memorials and museums become battlegrounds for competing narratives, as seen in controversies over the Yeltsin Centre and memorials for opposition figures.
- Memory as Political Tool: State-sponsored commemorations like Victory Day are used to foster patriotism and justify actions, but often lack genuine public engagement or reflection.
How does Sergei Medvedev analyze Russia’s use of information technology and the internet in The Return of the Russian Leviathan?
- From Liberation to Control: The internet, once a symbol of freedom, has been transformed into a tool for surveillance and repression under Putin’s regime.
- Hi-Tech Authoritarianism: The state employs advanced technologies for mass monitoring, censorship, and the creation of a “digital iron curtain.”
- Neutrality of Technology: Medvedev emphasizes that technology itself is neutral, but in Russia, state dominance turns it into an instrument of control rather than emancipation.
What does The Return of the Russian Leviathan by Sergei Medvedev say about Russia’s loss of sovereignty despite its aggressive rhetoric?
- Sovereignty as Control and Independence: Medvedev explains that true sovereignty involves legal recognition, exclusion of foreign interference, and practical independence, which Russia only partially achieves.
- Practical Dependencies: Russia’s reliance on foreign technology, sanctions, and geopolitical isolation undermine its claims to sovereignty.
- Paradox of Sovereignty Claims: The Kremlin’s obsession with sovereignty and territorial integrity paradoxically exposes vulnerabilities, making actual sovereignty “a Swiss cheese full of holes.”
Review Summary
The Return of the Russian Leviathan is a collection of essays examining Russia's relapse into imperialism and militarism. Readers praise Medvedev's insider perspective on Russian society, culture, and politics, finding the book insightful and disturbingly relevant to current events. Many appreciate the author's analysis of Russian psychology and the historical context provided. Some critics find the content repetitive or biased, but most consider it a valuable exploration of Russia's trajectory under Putin. The book's prescience regarding recent developments in Ukraine is frequently noted.
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