The Shortest History Of China

1. Ancient China: From Mythical Origins to Dynastic Rule

Far, far back in time, a popular Chinese creation story tells us, primal chaos congealed into an egg, in which the complementary cosmic energies of Yīn 陰 and Yáng 陽 thickened around a hairy, horned giant called Pángǔ.

Mythical beginnings. Chinese civilization traces its roots to legendary figures and semi-mythical dynasties. The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties emerged from these misty origins, establishing the foundations of Chinese culture.

Early innovations. By the 2nd millennium BCE, the Chinese had developed bronze metallurgy, a complex writing system, and sophisticated agricultural techniques. The Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) left behind oracle bones, providing the earliest evidence of Chinese writing and divination practices.

Social structure. Early Chinese society was hierarchical, with a ruling class of kings and nobles supported by farmers and artisans. This social order, along with ancestor worship and the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, would shape Chinese civilization for millennia to come.

2. The Zhou Dynasty: Philosophical Foundations of Chinese Thought

Confucius replied, 'Rectify the names.' He explained: 'If the names are not correct, if they do not match realities, language has no object. If language is without an object, action becomes impossible – and therefore, all human affairs disintegrate and their management becomes pointless and impossible.'

The Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BCE) and the Warring States period (475-221 BCE) saw intense political fragmentation but also intellectual ferment. This era gave birth to the major schools of Chinese philosophy:

• Confucianism: Emphasized moral cultivation, social harmony, and proper governance
• Daoism: Sought alignment with the natural order and simplicity
• Legalism: Advocated strict laws and harsh punishments to maintain order

Lasting influence. These philosophical traditions, especially Confucianism, would profoundly shape Chinese culture, politics, and society for over two millennia, providing a framework for ethics, governance, and social relations.

3. Imperial Unification: The Qin and Han Dynasties

Having conquered All Under Heaven, tiānxià 天下, by force, Qin Shihuang needed to secure it against hostile incursions. He ordered nearly a million soldiers and commoners – around one out of five of his subjects – to labour on a network of roads and tamped-earth border walls, signal towers and watchtowers along the northern boundary of his empire.

Qin unification. In 221 BCE, Qin Shihuang unified China, establishing the first imperial dynasty. His reign was marked by:

• Standardization of weights, measures, and writing
• Construction of the Great Wall
• Centralized bureaucracy and legal code
• Harsh suppression of dissent

Han consolidation. The Han dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) built on Qin foundations, creating a lasting imperial model:

• Confucian state ideology
• Expansion of territory and trade (Silk Road)
• Technological advancements (paper, seismograph)
• Development of a scholar-official class

The Han period is considered a golden age, with its cultural and political influence lasting well beyond its fall.

4. Cycles of Unity and Division: From Three Kingdoms to Sui

The first appearance of the name 'China' in a European language is in a sixteenth-century Spanish text. The word seemingly derives from references to the ancient Qín dynasty (221–206 BCE), via Sanskrit चीन (cīna) and Japanese 支那 (shina).

Period of disunity. After the fall of the Han, China entered a period of division lasting nearly four centuries. Key developments include:

• Three Kingdoms period (220-280 CE): Romanticized in later literature
• Jin dynasty (265-420 CE): Brief reunification followed by nomadic invasions
• Northern and Southern dynasties (420-589 CE): Cultural exchange between north and south

Buddhist influence. Buddhism entered China during this period, profoundly impacting Chinese culture, art, and philosophy.

Sui reunification. The short-lived Sui dynasty (581-618 CE) reunified China, laying the groundwork for the Tang dynasty's golden age through projects like the Grand Canal.

5. The Tang Dynasty: China's Golden Age of Cultural Flourishing

At its height, the Tang capital of Chang'an was one of the wealthiest and most intellectually, artistically and socially vibrant, cosmopolitan places in the world. Persians, Japanese, Indians, Central Asian Sogdians and other visitors thronged its bustling streets, lined with wineshops, teahouses and markets.

Cosmopolitan culture. The Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) marked a high point in Chinese civilization:

• International influence and exchange
• Religious diversity (Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, Islam)
• Flowering of poetry and art
• Technological innovations

Political developments:

• Expansion of imperial territory
• Refined civil service examination system
• Tang legal code influential across East Asia

Decline and fall. Internal rebellions and external pressures led to the dynasty's collapse, ushering in another period of division.

6. Song to Yuan: Technological Advancements and Foreign Rule

The Song was also an age of great technological achievement. The production of high-grade iron led to innovative uses of hydropower for spinning wheels, clepsydra (water clocks), irrigation and milling. Agriculture thrived with the introduction of early-ripening varietals of rice and the cultivation of a greater range of vegetables and fruits – thirty-two species of lychees alone.

Song innovations. The Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) saw remarkable advancements:

• Gunpowder, compass, movable type printing
• Neo-Confucian philosophy
• Economic revolution: paper money, urbanization

Mongol conquest. The Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE) brought China under foreign rule:

• Integration into vast Mongol Empire
• Cultural exchange along the Silk Road
• Marco Polo's visit to Kublai Khan's court

Despite foreign rule, Chinese culture continued to evolve and influence its conquerors.

7. The Ming Dynasty: Maritime Exploration and Cultural Isolation

Zhèng Hé (1371–1433). A Muslim from southwestern Yunnan, Zheng He led seven epic voyages, each involving dozens of seafaring junks (ships with battened sails) and tens of thousands of sailors. The armada suppressed pirate activity in the East China Sea, carried out diplomacy on behalf of the court as far the Persian Gulf, the east coast of Africa and the south coast of Arabia, and projected an image of Ming confidence and power.

Early Ming expansionism. The Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE) initially pursued an outward-looking policy:

• Zheng He's treasure fleets explored the Indian Ocean
• Expansion of tribute system

Inward turn. Later Ming rulers adopted a more isolationist stance:

• Restrictions on foreign trade and contact
• Great Wall expansion to defend against northern nomads

Cultural developments:

• Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
• Emergence of vernacular literature (e.g., "Journey to the West")
• Porcelain and other artistic refinements

The Ming period saw both the heights of Chinese power and the beginnings of its decline relative to rising European nations.

8. Qing Dynasty: Manchu Rule and Confrontation with the West

Qin Shihuang had ordered work to begin on his tomb when he became King of Qin at the age of thirteen. It took more than 700,000 craftsmen and builders thirty-six years, working around the clock, to complete. The roof was studded with pearls that formed a map of the constellations, and decorating the floor was a topographical representation of the empire, complete with rivers of flowing mercury.

Manchu conquest. The Qing dynasty (1644-1912) brought China under Manchu rule:

• Expansion to largest territorial extent in Chinese history
• Cultural policies (e.g., queue hairstyle) to assert Manchu identity

Height of power. Under emperors like Kangxi and Qianlong, the Qing reached its zenith:

• Population growth and economic prosperity
• Cultural synthesis of Manchu and Han traditions
• Continued technological and artistic achievements

Western challenge. The 19th century brought increasing confrontation with Western powers:

• Opium Wars and unequal treaties
• Taiping Rebellion and other internal upheavals
• Self-strengthening movement's attempts at modernization

The Qing's inability to effectively respond to these challenges led to its eventual collapse.

9. The Fall of Empire: From Opium Wars to Republic

The Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which granted the British access to Guangzhou, Shanghai and three other 'treaty ports'. It also ceded the island of Hong Kong – 'fragrant port', named for the spice trade – to the British in perpetuity.

Century of humiliation. The period from the First Opium War (1839-1842) to the founding of the People's Republic marked a traumatic era for China:

• Forced opening to foreign trade and influence
• Loss of territory and sovereignty
• Internal rebellions and social upheaval

Republican revolution. The 1911 Xinhai Revolution ended over 2,000 years of imperial rule:

• Sun Yat-sen's "Three Principles of the People"
• Struggle between Nationalists (KMT) and Communists
• Japanese invasion and civil war

This period of national weakness and division would profoundly shape modern Chinese nationalism and politics.

10. Mao's China: Revolution, Turmoil, and the Cultural Revolution

Mao scoffed that anyone worried about the speed of change was like an old woman with bound feet, 'tottering along' and complaining that others were going too fast.

Communist victory. Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party to victory in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China:

• Land reform and collectivization
• Industrialization attempts (Great Leap Forward)
• Breakdown of Sino-Soviet relations

Cultural Revolution. Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966:

• Attack on "old" culture and perceived enemies within the party
• Red Guards and mass mobilization
• Widespread social and economic disruption

The Maoist era saw both radical social transformation and immense human suffering, leaving a complex legacy that continues to shape China today.

11. Reform and Opening: Deng Xiaoping's Economic Transformation

Deng wanted the PRC to be a 'modern, powerful socialist country' by the end of the twentieth century. This required modernising agriculture, industry, defence, and science and technology.

Economic reforms. After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping initiated market-oriented reforms:

• Special Economic Zones
• Agricultural decollectivization
• Encouragement of private enterprise
• "Socialism with Chinese characteristics"

Opening to the world. China gradually reintegrated into the global economy:

• Foreign investment and trade
• Joining the World Trade Organization (2001)
• Rapid economic growth and urbanization

Political limits. While embracing economic liberalization, the CCP maintained strict political control, as evidenced by the 1989 Tiananmen Square crackdown.

12. Xi Jinping's New Era: Challenges of a Rising Superpower

Xi introduced the 'China Dream' of national rejuvenation, in which a prosperous China would take its rightful place in the world.

Consolidation of power. Xi Jinping has centralized authority to a degree

Last updated: August 23, 2024