They Say / I Say

1. Academic Writing is a Conversation, Not a Monologue

The single most important template that we focus on in this book is the “they say ; I say ” formula that gives our book its title.

Beyond solo statements. Academic writing isn't about making isolated pronouncements; it's about engaging in a dialogue with other voices. Effective arguments don't exist in a vacuum; they respond to what others have said or might say. This conversational approach is the foundation of persuasive writing.

The "They Say / I Say" framework. This core concept emphasizes that your own ideas ("I say") should always be presented as a response to the ideas of others ("they say"). This framework provides a structure for building arguments and ensures that your writing is relevant and engaging.

Active participation. By entering into a conversation, you become an active participant in the intellectual world, rather than a passive observer. This approach encourages critical thinking and helps you develop your own ideas in relation to the ideas of others.

2. "They Say" Before "I Say": The Power of Context

To keep an audience engaged, a writer needs to explain what he or she is responding to—either before offering that response or, at least, very early in the discussion.

Setting the stage. Before presenting your own argument, it's crucial to establish the context by summarizing the views you're responding to. This provides readers with a clear understanding of the conversation you're entering and why your argument is necessary.

Motivating your argument. By starting with "they say," you create a sense of purpose and urgency for your own claims. It shows readers that your argument is not arbitrary but is driven by a need to address existing ideas or debates.

Engaging the reader. Starting with "they say" helps to draw readers into the conversation, making them more invested in your argument. It also helps you avoid the trap of making statements that nobody can disagree with, which can lead to flat, lifeless writing.

3. Summarizing Others: Fairly and Strategically

As a general rule, a good summary requires balancing what the original author is saying with the writer’s own focus.

The believing game. To summarize effectively, you must temporarily suspend your own beliefs and try to understand the author's perspective. This requires playing what Peter Elbow calls the "believing game," in which you try to inhabit the worldview of those you are summarizing.

Avoiding the closest cliché. It's important to avoid the "closest cliché syndrome," where you mistake a familiar idea for the author's actual view. Instead, you must go back to the original text and study it closely.

Summarizing with a purpose. While being fair to the original author, your summary should also be strategic, emphasizing those aspects of the author's argument that are relevant to your own. This ensures that your summary sets up your own argument effectively.

4. Quoting Effectively: Framing is Key

Since quotations do not speak for themselves, you need to build a frame around them in which you do that speaking for them.

Quotations as evidence. Quoting someone else's words adds credibility to your summary and helps ensure that it is fair and accurate. Quotations function as a kind of proof, showing readers that you're not just making things up.

The quotation sandwich. To effectively integrate a quotation, you need to frame it with an introduction that explains who is speaking and what the quotation says, and a follow-up that explains why you consider the quotation important and how it relates to your own text.

Avoiding "hit-and-run" quotations. Don't just drop quotations into your text without any explanation. Instead, make sure that every quotation is properly framed and integrated into your argument.

5. Responding: Agree, Disagree, or Both

The forms of agreeing, disagreeing, and both agreeing and disagreeing that we discuss, far from being simplistic or one-dimensional, are able to accommodate a high degree of creative, complex thought.

Beyond simple yes or no. Responding to others' ideas is not just about agreeing or disagreeing; it's about engaging with their views in a thoughtful and nuanced way. You can agree, disagree, or both, but you must always provide reasons for your response.

Disagreeing with reasons. When you disagree, you need to do more than simply contradict the other person's view. You must offer persuasive reasons why you disagree, such as faulty evidence, questionable assumptions, or flawed logic.

Agreeing with a difference. Even when you agree, you should bring something new to the table, adding your own perspective or insights. This could involve pointing out unnoticed implications, offering new evidence, or providing an accessible translation of complex ideas.

6. Voice Markers: Distinguishing Your Ideas from Others

To avoid confusion in your own writing, make sure that at every point your readers can clearly tell who is saying what.

Clarity is key. It's essential that readers can distinguish between your views and those of others. This requires using clear voice markers that signal when you are expressing your own ideas and when you are summarizing or quoting someone else.

Using "I" effectively. Don't be afraid to use the first-person "I" to express your own views. This can help you take strong positions and differentiate your ideas from those of others.

Embedding voice markers. You can also embed references to other perspectives within your own sentences, allowing you to refer to other views without interrupting the flow of your argument.

7. Planting a Naysayer: Strengthening Your Argument

Paradoxically, the more you give voice to your critics’ objections, the more you tend to disarm those critics, especially if you go on to answer their objections in convincing ways.

Anticipating criticism. By acknowledging and addressing potential objections to your argument, you demonstrate that you've considered other perspectives and are confident in your own position. This can actually enhance your credibility with readers.

The power of the naysayer. Planting a naysayer in your text allows you to engage with opposing arguments directly, rather than ignoring them. This can lead to a more nuanced and persuasive argument.

Responding to objections. It's not enough to simply acknowledge objections; you must also respond to them persuasively. This may involve making concessions, qualifying your claims, or offering counterarguments.

8. "So What?" and "Who Cares?": Making Your Argument Matter

To make an impact as a writer, you need to do more than make statements that are logical, well supported, and consistent. You must also find a way of entering a conversation with others’ views—with something “they say.”

Beyond the obvious. It's not enough to simply state your argument; you must also explain why it matters. Readers need to know why they should care about your claims and what the real-world implications are.

Answering "who cares?" Identify the specific people or groups who have a stake in your argument. This helps readers see that your claims are not just abstract ideas but have real-world relevance.

Answering "so what?" Explain the broader consequences of your argument. What difference would it make if your claims were accepted? This helps readers understand the significance of your work.

9. Connecting the Parts: Transitions, Pointing Words, and Repetition

To keep an audience engaged, a writer needs to explain what he or she is responding to—either before offering that response or, at least, very early in the discussion.

Creating flow. To make your writing flow smoothly, you need to establish clear connections between your sentences and paragraphs. This involves using transitions, pointing words, and repetition to guide readers through your argument.

Transitions as signposts. Transitions like "therefore," "however," and "for example" signal to readers how your ideas relate to one another. They help you move from one point to the next and make your argument more coherent.

Pointing words and repetition. Pointing words like "this" and "that" refer back to previous concepts, while repeating key terms and phrases helps to reinforce your main ideas and create a sense of continuity.

10. Your Voice Matters: Mixing Academic and Colloquial Styles

Academic writing doesn’t always mean setting aside your own voice.

Beyond formal language. Academic writing doesn't have to be dry and impersonal. You can use your own voice and incorporate colloquial expressions to make your writing more engaging and accessible.

Blending styles. Mixing academic and colloquial styles can add punch to your writing and help you connect with readers on a personal level. It also challenges the notion that academic and everyday language are completely separate.

Purposeful informality. While it's important to be aware of your audience and purpose, don't be afraid to use informal language when it's appropriate. This can make your writing more lively and authentic.

11. Metacommentary: Guiding Your Reader

In the main text you say something; in the metatext you guide your readers in interpreting and processing what you’ve said.

Commenting on your claims. Metacommentary is a way of commenting on your own claims, telling readers how to interpret what you've said. It's like a second text that runs alongside your main text, guiding readers through your argument.

Clarifying and elaborating. Metacommentary can help you clarify your points, elaborate on your ideas, and prevent potential misunderstandings. It also helps you generate more text and develop your ideas more fully.

Types of metacommentary. Metacommentary can take many forms, including previewing your argument, distinguishing your views from others, and explaining the implications of your claims.

12. Templates as Tools: Not Crutches

The aim of the templates, then, is not to stifle critical thinking but to be direct with students about the key rhetorical moves that it comprises.

Templates as learning tools. The templates in this book are not meant to be rigid formulas but rather learning tools that can help you master the basic moves of academic writing. They provide a starting point for your own writing, not a substitute for your own thinking.

Adapting and improvising. Once you become comfortable with the templates, you can adapt and improvise on them to fit your own purposes. You can also find new templates in your reading and develop your own.

Mastering the moves. The goal is to internalize the rhetorical moves represented by the templates so that they become second nature. Once you've mastered these moves, you can even dispense with the templates altogether.

Last updated: February 24, 2025