This Is Your Brain on Music

1. Music is a universal language that engages the entire brain

Music listening, performance, and composition engage nearly every area of the brain that we have so far identified, and involve nearly every neural subsystem.

Holistic brain engagement. Unlike other cognitive functions that are localized to specific brain regions, music activates multiple areas simultaneously. This includes the auditory cortex for processing sound, the motor cortex for rhythm and movement, the limbic system for emotion, and the frontal lobes for planning and anticipation.

Interconnected processing. The brain's response to music involves complex interactions between these regions. For example, the cerebellum, traditionally associated with motor control, also plays a role in emotional responses to music. This interconnectedness allows music to affect us on multiple levels - cognitively, emotionally, and physically.

Universal human trait. Every known human culture has some form of music, suggesting it is a fundamental aspect of human experience. This universality, combined with music's ability to engage the entire brain, makes it a powerful tool for understanding human cognition and emotion.

2. Our brains are wired to process and enjoy music from birth

The auditory system of the fetus is fully functional about twenty weeks after conception.

Innate musical capacity. Even before birth, humans are capable of perceiving and responding to music. Studies have shown that newborns can recognize melodies they heard in the womb, demonstrating an early capacity for musical memory and preference.

Early development. In the first years of life, children rapidly develop musical abilities:

• Recognizing rhythm and pitch patterns
• Distinguishing between consonant and dissonant sounds
• Showing preference for the musical scales of their culture

Biological foundations. This early musical aptitude suggests that our brains are inherently structured to process music, much like language. The ability to perceive and enjoy music appears to be a fundamental human trait, not just a learned skill.

3. Musical preferences are shaped by both nature and nurture

Musical preferences are influenced, but not determined, by what we hear in the womb.

Genetic predisposition. Some aspects of musical preference may have a genetic component. For example, studies of twins suggest that there might be a hereditary aspect to preferences for certain musical genres or styles.

Environmental factors. Our musical tastes are heavily influenced by our experiences and cultural context:

• Early exposure to certain types of music
• Cultural and social norms
• Peer influences, especially during adolescence
• Emotional associations with specific songs or genres

Dynamic process. Musical preferences are not static but evolve throughout our lives. While early experiences lay the foundation, we continue to develop and refine our tastes based on new exposures and experiences.

4. Music evokes emotions through expectation and surprise

Music communicates to us emotionally through systematic violations of expectations.

Anticipation and reward. Our brains are constantly predicting what will come next in a piece of music. When these predictions are met, we feel a sense of satisfaction. When they're violated in interesting ways, we experience surprise and often pleasure.

Cultural context. Our expectations are shaped by the musical conventions we've internalized from our culture. This is why music from unfamiliar cultures can sometimes sound strange or less emotionally engaging at first.

Emotional triggers in music:

• Rhythm and tempo changes
• Harmonic progressions
• Melodic contours
• Dynamic shifts (loud to soft)
• Timbral variations

5. Memory plays a crucial role in our musical experiences

Every neuroimaging study that my laboratory has done has shown amygdala activation to music, but not to random collections of sounds or musical tones.

Emotional memory. The amygdala, a key structure in emotional processing and memory, is strongly activated by music. This explains why music can evoke powerful memories and emotions from our past.

Multiple memory systems. Music engages various types of memory:

• Procedural memory (for playing instruments)
• Semantic memory (for musical knowledge)
• Episodic memory (for specific musical experiences)
• Working memory (for following a piece of music)

Long-term retention. Musical memories can be remarkably durable. People with Alzheimer's disease often retain musical memories even when other types of memory are severely impaired, suggesting that music may be processed and stored in unique ways in the brain.

6. Musical expertise is developed through practice and exposure

The emerging picture from such studies is that ten thousand hours of practice is required to achieve the level of mastery associated with being a world-class expert—in anything.

Deliberate practice. Becoming a musical expert requires extensive, focused practice. The "10,000-hour rule" suggests that this level of practice is necessary for achieving world-class expertise in any field, including music.

Neural plasticity. Regular musical practice leads to physical changes in the brain:

• Enlarged areas related to motor control of practiced movements
• Enhanced connections between auditory and motor regions
• Improved processing of musical sounds

Multifaceted skill. Musical expertise involves more than just technical proficiency. It also includes:

• Emotional expressivity
• Understanding of musical structure and theory
• Ability to improvise and create
• Collaborative skills for ensemble playing

7. Music may have evolutionary origins in social bonding and sexual selection

Darwin recognized this implication of his theory of natural selection and came up with the idea of sexual selection.

Social cohesion. Music may have evolved as a way to promote group bonding and cooperation. Collective music-making can synchronize group emotions and actions, potentially providing an evolutionary advantage.

Sexual selection. Musical ability might serve as a display of cognitive and physical fitness, potentially making individuals more attractive as mates. This could explain why musical ability often peaks during reproductive years.

Evolutionary functions of music:

• Mother-infant bonding
• Coordination of group activities
• Transmission of cultural knowledge
• Emotional regulation
• Enhancement of cognitive abilities

8. The brain processes different musical elements in specialized regions

Different aspects of a musical sound need to be analyzed—usually involving several quasi-independent neural processes—and they then need to be brought together to form a coherent representation of what we're listening to.

Distributed processing. Different aspects of music are processed in distinct brain regions:

• Pitch in the auditory cortex
• Rhythm in the cerebellum and basal ganglia
• Timbre in the superior temporal gyrus
• Musical structure in the frontal lobes

Integration. These separate processes are then integrated to create our overall experience of music. This integration involves complex interactions between various brain regions.

Specialization and plasticity. While certain regions are specialized for specific musical functions, the brain shows remarkable plasticity. Musicians' brains often show structural and functional differences compared to non-musicians, reflecting their extensive training and practice.

9. Music influences mood and can have therapeutic effects

Music listening and music therapy have been shown to help people overcome a broad range of psychological and physical problems.

Mood regulation. People often use music to influence their emotional state, whether to energize, relax, or process complex feelings. This is due to music's ability to activate the brain's reward and emotion centers.

Therapeutic applications. Music therapy has shown benefits in various contexts:

• Reducing anxiety and stress
• Managing pain
• Improving motor function in neurological disorders
• Enhancing cognitive function in dementia
• Supporting emotional processing in mental health treatment

Neurochemical effects. Music can influence the release of neurotransmitters and hormones:

• Dopamine (pleasure and reward)
• Cortisol (stress hormone)
• Oxytocin (bonding and trust)

10. Technology is changing how we create and consume music

We have to train them to behave "civilized."

Digital revolution. Technology has transformed music production, distribution, and consumption:

• Digital audio workstations allow for complex home recording
• Streaming services provide instant access to vast music libraries
• AI is being used in music composition and production

Changing listening habits. Personal music players and streaming have made music more portable and personalized than ever before. This has led to changes in how we interact with music in our daily lives.

Future trends:

• Increased use of AI in music creation and curation
• Virtual and augmented reality music experiences
• More sophisticated personalization of music recommendations
• Continued blurring of lines between creator and consumer

Last updated: January 22, 2025