重点摘要
1. 犯罪是复杂的社会构建，而非简单的法律定义
“因此，我们必须谨慎使用我们的术语。当我们谈论犯罪时，我们到底是什么意思？”
犯罪的定义复杂。 犯罪并不是一个简单明了的概念，而是一个随着时间、文化和背景而变化的社会构建现象。在一个社会中被视为犯罪的行为，在另一个社会中可能是可以接受甚至受到庆祝的。这种复杂性挑战了简单的法律定义，要求我们有更细致的理解。
犯罪定义的相对性。 不同的社会和历史时期对犯罪的定义各不相同。例如：
- 同性恋曾被定为犯罪，但在许多国家现在是合法的
- 跨种族婚姻曾在多个国家被视为犯罪
- 堕胎法律在不同的司法管辖区之间差异巨大
权力塑造犯罪定义。 拥有社会和政治权力的人显著影响什么被定义为犯罪。这意味着，犯罪定义往往反映并强化现有的社会等级和不平等，而不是代表客观的道德标准。
2. 犯罪测量本质上不可靠且具有挑战性
“没有什么是看上去那么简单的。考虑到警察部队在专业性和组织程度上的差异，任何此类统计数据在生成方式上也会有所不同，因此其可靠性也会有所不同。”
多重测量挑战。 犯罪统计数据因几个基本问题而存在问题：
- 并非所有犯罪都会被报告
- 警方记录实践各不相同
- 受害者的回忆并不完美
- 不同的测量技术会产生不同的结果
- 隐藏的犯罪（如网络犯罪）难以追踪
调查方法提供替代方案。 受害者调查通过直接询问人们的经历，提供了更全面的犯罪视角，绕过了官方警察记录的一些局限性。
谨慎解读至关重要。 研究人员必须以怀疑的态度看待犯罪统计数据，理解它们代表的是部分且可能扭曲的犯罪活动视图。
3. 犯罪趋势揭示复杂的社会和经济动态
“过去至少二十年中，犯罪率的显著下降并未因近期的金融危机而逆转，似乎没有明显或简单的经济解释来说明犯罪率的下降。”
犯罪并非随机分布。 犯罪率受到多个相互关联因素的影响：
- 经济状况
- 技术变革
- 社会结构
- 日常活动
- 人口变化
没有简单的解释。 尽管经济状况、警务和惩罚等因素在犯罪趋势中发挥作用，但没有单一因素能够全面解释犯罪率的上升或下降。
需要整体理解。 犯罪学家必须考虑社会、经济、技术和文化因素之间的复杂互动，以理解犯罪动态。
4. 罪犯并不是一个独立的群体
“近年来犯罪学的一个重要发现是，不仅有些人多次成为受害者，且曾经成为犯罪受害者实际上可能会增加未来再次成为受害者的可能性，而不是减少。”
犯罪性并非固定。 大多数人在一生中都会犯某种形式的法律违规行为。犯罪行为并不局限于一个独特、独立的个体群体，而是在特定情况下大多数人都有可能表现出的潜力。
年龄和人口统计因素重要。 犯罪模式受到以下因素的强烈影响：
- 年龄（大多数犯罪发生在青少年时期）
- 性别（男性犯罪率更高）
- 社会和经济条件
环境塑造行为。 个人选择犯罪的决定受到社会环境、机会和个人情况的重大影响。
5. 非正式社会控制比正式惩罚更为重要
“你周围生活的普遍可预测性是……无数社会环境中个体之间或多或少可预测的互动的结果。”
社会规范支配行为。 大多数人类行为是由不成文的社会规则、期望和内化的价值观所规范，而不是出于对法律惩罚的恐惧。
社会化至关重要。 家庭、教育、同龄人和社区等关键机构在塑造个体行为和维护社会秩序方面发挥着基础性作用。
惩罚效果有限。 与创造共同价值和相互理解的强大社会机构相比，正式的刑事司法系统在控制犯罪方面的效果较差。
6. 预防比惩罚更有效
“近年来，犯罪学对犯罪控制的一个重要实际贡献。”
情境预防有效。 减少犯罪机会往往比事后惩罚更为有效：
- 使犯罪变得更加困难
- 增加感知风险
- 减少潜在奖励
- 消除借口
环境重要。 设计能够抑制犯罪行为的物理和社会环境，往往比反应性的法律方法更成功。
主动策略带来更好结果。 解决根本原因并创造不利于犯罪的条件，比传统的惩罚方法更为有效。
7. 犯罪学必须扩展其关注范围，超越传统界限
“我们时代的犯罪是资本的犯罪。”
拓宽犯罪学视角。 传统犯罪学过于狭隘地关注街头犯罪，而忽视了：
- 企业不当行为
- 环境危害
- 权力者的犯罪
- 全球经济不平等
全球和跨学科的方法。 现代犯罪学必须变得更加：
- 国际化
- 政治参与
- 关注系统性不平等
- 跨学科
挑战现有范式。 犯罪学家必须批判性地审视产生危害的社会结构和权力动态。
8. 生物和社会因素在犯罪行为中相互作用
“生物社会学用于指代某种形式的生物基础与社会环境之间的相互作用。”
复杂的行为起源。 犯罪行为是以下因素之间复杂互动的结果：
- 遗传倾向
- 神经因素
- 早期生活经历
- 社会环境
- 个人选择
没有简单的决定论。 生物风险因素并不保证犯罪行为的发生，而是与社会条件相互作用，影响潜在的犯罪。
新兴研究领域。 科学界对行为的生物基础日益关注，同时保持细致而非简化的方法。
9. 机会和环境深刻影响犯罪
“机会在所有犯罪中都扮演着角色；机会是特定的，并且在空间和时间上集中。”
理性选择视角。 犯罪者通常基于以下因素做出计算决策：
- 感知风险
- 潜在奖励
- 可用机会
- 环境条件
情境因素重要。 犯罪不仅仅与个体动机有关，还受到以下因素的显著影响：
- 物理环境
- 安全措施
- 日常活动
- 空间和时间背景
通过设计进行预防。 理解环境如何促进或抑制犯罪行为，可以帮助制定更有效的犯罪减少策略。
10. 权力和社会不平等塑造刑事司法系统
“犯罪学持续未能充分关注权力者的犯罪。”
系统性偏见存在。 刑事司法系统不成比例地关注：
- 无权者的犯罪
- 低社会经济群体
- 边缘化社区
不平等待遇。 法律系统往往：
- 忽视企业不当行为
- 最小化白领犯罪
- 延续现有的社会等级
需要批判性视角。 犯罪学必须挑战系统性不平等，并审视权力结构如何影响法律定义和执行。
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FAQ
What's "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction" about?
- Overview of Criminology: The book provides a concise introduction to criminology, exploring the nature of crime, who commits it, and how society responds to it.
- Historical Context: It traces the origins of criminology from the late 18th century and its development into a field that draws from sociology, psychology, law, and other disciplines.
- Key Themes: The book discusses crime measurement, trends, prevention, and the role of the criminal justice system.
- Author's Perspective: Tim Newburn emphasizes the political nature of criminology and the importance of understanding crime as a social phenomenon.
Why should I read "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Accessible Introduction: The book is designed for those new to criminology, offering a stimulating and accessible entry into the subject.
- Expert Insight: Written by Tim Newburn, an expert in the field, it provides authoritative insights into criminology.
- Broad Coverage: It covers a wide range of topics, from crime trends and prevention to the role of the criminal justice system.
- Critical Perspective: The book encourages readers to think critically about crime, its causes, and societal responses.
What are the key takeaways of "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Crime Definition: Crime is a complex and socially constructed concept, not just a legal definition.
- Trends and Measurement: Understanding crime trends requires careful analysis of both law enforcement data and victimization surveys.
- Prevention and Control: Effective crime prevention involves both situational measures and addressing broader social issues.
- Role of Criminology: Criminology is a political and interdisciplinary field that examines the social context of crime and justice.
How does Tim Newburn define crime in "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Social Construction: Crime is defined not just by law but by social norms and power dynamics.
- Legal vs. Moral: The book distinguishes between acts that are inherently wrong (mala in se) and those deemed wrong by law (mala prohibita).
- Relativity: Crime definitions can vary over time and across cultures, reflecting changes in societal values.
- Focus on Harm: Newburn suggests considering harm as a broader concept that encompasses crime.
What are the major crime trends discussed in "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Post-War Increase: Crime rates rose significantly in the post-World War II era, peaking in the late 20th century.
- Recent Decline: Since the 1990s, many countries have experienced a notable decline in crime rates.
- Factors Influencing Trends: Economic conditions, policing practices, and social changes are among the factors influencing crime trends.
- Measurement Challenges: Accurate crime measurement is complex, requiring multiple data sources and careful interpretation.
How does "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction" explain the decline in crime rates?
- Security Improvements: Enhanced security measures, such as better car and home security, have contributed to the decline.
- Policing Changes: Innovations in policing, including hot spots policing and community engagement, have played a role.
- Economic and Social Factors: Economic stability and social changes, such as reduced lead exposure, are also factors.
- Complex Interactions: The decline is likely due to a combination of factors rather than a single cause.
What role does the criminal justice system play according to "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Formal Control: The system provides formal mechanisms for responding to crime, including policing, courts, and corrections.
- Limitations: The book highlights the limitations of the criminal justice system in effectively controlling crime.
- Informal Social Control: Informal social controls, such as family and community influences, are crucial in maintaining order.
- Political Nature: The criminal justice system is deeply political, reflecting societal values and power structures.
What is situational crime prevention as discussed in "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Focus on Opportunities: Situational crime prevention aims to reduce crime by limiting opportunities and increasing risks for offenders.
- Practical Measures: It includes strategies like improved lighting, surveillance, and access control to deter crime.
- Rational Choice Theory: The approach is based on the idea that offenders weigh risks and rewards before committing crimes.
- Criticisms: Some argue it neglects deeper social causes of crime and may lead to displacement rather than reduction.
How does "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction" address the concept of white-collar crime?
- Definition and Impact: White-collar crime involves non-violent, financially motivated offenses by individuals or organizations.
- Under-Studied Area: The book notes that white-collar crime is often overlooked in criminology despite its significant impact.
- Demographics: Offenders are typically older, wealthier, and less likely to face prosecution compared to street criminals.
- Harm vs. Crime: The book suggests focusing on harm, as white-collar crimes can cause extensive economic and social damage.
What are the ethical considerations in criminology according to "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction"?
- Political Implications: Criminology is inherently political, influencing and influenced by societal values and power dynamics.
- Focus on Power: The book calls for greater attention to the crimes of the powerful and systemic injustices.
- Social Justice: Criminologists should consider the broader social and economic contexts of crime and justice.
- Responsibility: Researchers have a responsibility to challenge assumptions and contribute to fair and effective policies.
What are the best quotes from "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction" and what do they mean?
- "Crime is a deeply political enterprise." This highlights the influence of power and politics in defining and responding to crime.
- "Criminology has no distinct theoretical object." It emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of criminology, drawing from various fields.
- "The crimes of our times are those of capital." This calls attention to the significant impact of corporate and white-collar crime.
- "We must be wary of imposing too strict a boundary on what passes as the subject matter of criminology." It suggests a broad and inclusive approach to studying crime and harm.
How does "Criminology: A Very Short Introduction" suggest we approach the future of criminology?
- Interdisciplinary Focus: The future of criminology lies in its ability to integrate insights from various disciplines.
- Global Perspective: Criminology should expand its focus to include global issues and perspectives, addressing inequalities and transnational crime.
- Technological Impact: The book highlights the need to understand the impact of technology and the Internet on crime and justice.
- Political Engagement: Criminologists should engage with political and ethical questions, advocating for fair and effective policies.
评论
犯罪学由蒂姆·纽本撰写，被广泛认为是犯罪学学生和专业人士的重要资源。读者们赞赏其对与犯罪相关主题的全面覆盖，适合初学者的易读性，以及学术与职业方面的结合。该书的篇幅和深度既受到赞扬，也遭到批评，有些人觉得阅读起来较为疲惫。特别推荐给一年级学生以及作为参考指南。尽管大多数评论都是积极的，但也有一些建议在特定主题的深入研究中，辅以专业文本以获得更全面的理解。