1491

1. Holmberg's Mistake: The Myth of Unchanging Native America

For almost five centuries, Holmberg’s Mistake—the supposition that Native Americans lived in an eternal, unhistoried state—held sway in scholarly work, and from there fanned out to high school textbooks, Hollywood movies, newspaper articles, environmental campaigns, romantic adventure books, and silk-screened T-shirts.

The flawed perspective. "Holmberg's Mistake" refers to the long-held belief that Native Americans lived in a timeless, unchanging state before European contact. This notion, perpetuated through various media, depicted them as passive recipients of fate, lacking agency and history. This view, whether positive (Noble Savage) or negative (vicious barbarian), denied the dynamic nature of indigenous societies.

Challenging the myth. Recent scholarship has overturned this misconception, revealing that Native American societies were dynamic, diverse, and actively shaped their environments. This new understanding emphasizes that indigenous peoples were not static remnants of the past but active agents in their own history. The Sirionó, for example, were not "culturally backward" but survivors of a devastating epidemic and persecution.

Consequences of the mistake. Holmberg's Mistake has had far-reaching consequences, influencing everything from colonial policies to environmental activism. It has led to the erasure of indigenous history and the justification of European dominance. Recognizing and correcting this mistake is crucial for understanding the true complexity of the Americas before 1492.

2. Beyond the Bering Strait: A Longer, More Complex History

The picture they have emerged with is quite different from what most Americans and Europeans think, and still little known outside specialist circles.

Challenging the Clovis-first model. For decades, the dominant theory held that Indians arrived in the Americas via the Bering Strait land bridge about 13,000 years ago, with the Clovis culture as the earliest known. However, new archaeological evidence, such as the Monte Verde site in Chile, suggests that humans were present in the Americas much earlier, possibly as far back as 30,000 years ago.

Multiple migrations and routes. The new evidence suggests that the peopling of the Americas was not a single event but a series of migrations, possibly by both land and sea. The ancestors of most modern Indians may have been relative latecomers, arriving after earlier groups. This challenges the idea of a single, unified "Indian" identity.

Independent development. Native Americans missed out on the Neolithic Revolution in Eurasia, which led to the wheel, metal tools, and writing. Instead, they developed their own agricultural systems, writing, and mathematics independently. The Olmec, Maya, and other Mesoamerican societies invented zero, a feat that occurred in the Middle East much later.

3. The Power of Disease: A Decisive Factor in Colonial Encounters

The fall of Indian societies had everything to do with the natives themselves, rather than being religiously or technologically determined.

Disease as a weapon. European diseases, such as smallpox, influenza, and measles, decimated Native American populations, often before direct contact with Europeans. These epidemics, to which Indians had no immunity, were a far more potent weapon than guns or steel. The Wampanoag, for example, were devastated by an epidemic that killed 90% of their population.

Indian agency and unintended consequences. While disease was a major factor, Indian societies were not passive victims. They made strategic decisions, such as alliances with Europeans, to protect themselves from other Indian groups. However, these decisions often had unintended consequences, such as ensuring the survival of colonial settlements that would later displace them.

The master narrative of contact. The encounters between Europeans and Native Americans followed a similar pattern: disease, political fragmentation, and alliances with newcomers. This pattern, repeated across the Americas, highlights the complex interplay of biological, cultural, and political factors in shaping the course of history.

4. The Dawnland: A World of Interconnected Communities

In Massachusett, the name for the New England shore was the Dawnland, the place where the sun rose. The inhabitants of the Dawnland were the People of the First Light.

A mosaic of cultures. The Dawnland, encompassing coastal New England, was home to a diverse array of Algonquian-speaking peoples, including the Wampanoag, Nauset, and Massachusett. These groups were not isolated but part of a complex network of alliances, trade, and conflict. They were not nomadic but lived in permanent settlements, moving between summer and winter locations.

Sophisticated social structures. Dawnland societies were governed by sachems, who held political and military power but also had to gain the consent of their people. They had a strong emphasis on character development, with children being raised to be brave, hardy, honest, and uncomplaining. The pniese, a kind of counselor-bodyguard, underwent rigorous training to master self-discipline and pain tolerance.

Managing the European presence. Coastal groups like the Wampanoag initially controlled European access to their shores, acting as middlemen in trade. However, the arrival of the Pilgrims and the subsequent alliance with them marked a turning point, leading to the eventual displacement of indigenous peoples.

5. Tawantinsuyu: An Empire Built on Ingenuity and Control

Bigger than Ming Dynasty China, bigger than Ivan the Great’s expanding Russia, bigger than Songhay in the Sahel or powerful Great Zimbabwe in the West Africa tablelands, bigger than the cresting Ottoman Empire, bigger than the Triple Alliance (as the Aztec empire is more precisely known), bigger by far than any European state, the Inka dominion extended over a staggering thirty-two degrees of latitude.

A vast and diverse empire. The Inka empire, known as Tawantinsuyu, was the largest in the world at its time, encompassing a wide range of environments and peoples. It was not a centralized state but a network of municipalities under the sway of the Inka emperor. The Inka used a combination of force, diplomacy, and cultural integration to maintain control.

Vertical archipelagoes and economic control. The Inka took advantage of the extreme ecological differences in the Andes to create a complex system of exchange. They established colonies at different altitudes to access resources and used a vast road system to transport goods and people. They also used a unique system of knotted strings, khipu, to record information.

A short-lived but influential power. The Inka empire rose rapidly in the 15th century but was quickly destroyed by the Spanish. Despite its short duration, it left a lasting legacy in the Andes, shaping the region's culture, politics, and economy. The Inka were masters of engineering, architecture, and social organization.

6. The Columbian Exchange: A Biological and Cultural Upheaval

About seven thousand years elapsed between the dawn of the Middle Eastern Neolithic and the establishment of Sumer. Indians navigated the same path in somewhat less time (the data are too sketchy to be more precise).

A two-way exchange. The Columbian Exchange refers to the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds after 1492. While Europeans brought devastating diseases to the Americas, they also introduced horses, cattle, and other animals. The Americas, in turn, gave the world maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and other crops.

Unintended consequences. The exchange had profound and often unintended consequences. European diseases decimated Native American populations, while American crops transformed European and African agriculture. The introduction of horses changed the way of life for many Plains Indians.

A global transformation. The Columbian Exchange was a major turning point in world history, knitting together the seams of Pangaea and creating a new global ecosystem. It led to both cultural enrichment and ecological devastation, shaping the world we live in today.

7. The Artificial Wilderness: Indians as Landscape Architects

Indians were here far longer than previously thought, these researchers believe, and in much greater numbers. And they were so successful at imposing their will on the landscape that in 1492 Columbus set foot in a hemisphere thoroughly marked by humankind.

Active landscape management. Native Americans were not passive inhabitants of a pristine wilderness but active managers of their environment. They used fire, irrigation, and other techniques to shape the landscape to their needs. The Beni, for example, was a vast, human-made landscape of forest islands, causeways, and fish weirs.

Fire as a tool. Indians used fire to clear undergrowth, create grasslands, and encourage the growth of certain plants and animals. This practice, often misunderstood by Europeans, was a key element in maintaining the ecological balance of many regions. The Great Plains, for example, were largely created and maintained by Indian burning.

Challenging the "pristine myth." The idea of a pristine, untouched wilderness in the Americas is a myth. The landscapes encountered by Europeans were the result of thousands of years of human interaction. Recognizing this fact is crucial for understanding the true history of the Americas and for developing sustainable environmental practices today.

8. Mesoamerica's Gifts: Maize, Mathematics, and More

Arguably their greatest intellectual feat was the invention of zero.

The cradle of agriculture. Mesoamerica was one of the world's independent centers of agriculture, where maize, beans, squash, and other crops were domesticated. Maize, in particular, was a remarkable achievement, developed from an unpromising wild grass into a highly productive staple.

Intellectual achievements. Mesoamerican societies, such as the Olmec and Maya, developed sophisticated systems of writing, mathematics, and astronomy. They invented the concept of zero, a feat that occurred in the Middle East much later. They also created accurate calendars and tracked the orbits of the planets.

A legacy of innovation. Mesoamerica's intellectual and agricultural achievements had a profound impact on the world. The crops they domesticated are now staples in many countries, and their mathematical and astronomical knowledge continues to inspire researchers today.

9. The Andean Exception: Verticality and the Maritime Foundation

The Inka goal was to knit the scores of different groups in western South America—some as rich as the Inka themselves, some poor and disorganized, all speaking different languages—into a single bureaucratic framework under the direct rule of the emperor.

Unique geography, unique adaptations. The Andes, with its extreme altitudes and diverse ecosystems, presented unique challenges and opportunities for human societies. Andean cultures developed a system of "vertical archipelagoes," in which they established settlements at different altitudes to access a variety of resources.

Maritime resources and early cities. The Norte Chico civilization, which predated the Inka, was based on the exploitation of maritime resources, such as anchovies and sardines. This challenges the traditional view that agriculture was the sole foundation of complex societies. The Norte Chico also developed sophisticated irrigation systems to grow cotton, which was used for trade and status.

A long tradition of innovation. The Andean region was home to a long succession of complex societies, including Chavín, Wari, Tiwanaku, and Chimor. These cultures developed unique technologies, art forms, and political systems, demonstrating the region's rich and diverse history.

10. The Great Law of Peace: A Legacy of Liberty and Equality

In different forms Bancroft’s characterization was carried into the next century. Writing in 1934, Alfred L. Kroeber, one of the founders of American anthropology, theorized that the Indians in eastern North America could not develop—could have no history—because their lives consisted of “warfare that was insane, unending, continuously attritional.”

Haudenosaunee influence on American ideals. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, also known as the Iroquois League, was a powerful alliance of six nations in the Northeast. Their constitution, the Great Law of Peace, emphasized consensus, personal liberty, and social equality. These ideals, which were observed by early colonists, may have influenced the development of democratic thought in the United States.

A model of self-governance. The Haudenosaunee system of governance, with its emphasis on consensus and checks on authority, was a striking contrast to the hierarchical societies of Europe. It provided a living example of a society that valued individual freedom and collective decision-making.

A lasting legacy. The Haudenosaunee and other Native American societies have left a lasting legacy of liberty and equality. Their example continues to inspire people around the world who seek to create more just and democratic societies.

Last updated: April 7, 2025