A Brief History of Thought

1. Greek mythology is a philosophy in story form

Classical myth is central to an entire civilization and polytheist religion, but is above all a philosophy in "story form": a magnificent and concerted attempt to respond in secular form to the question of the good life by means of lessons in wisdom that breathe and live—are clothed in literature, in poetry and epic—rather than formulated in abstract argument.

Philosophy through stories. Greek mythology is not merely a collection of fantastical tales, but a sophisticated attempt to address fundamental questions about human existence. These myths serve as vehicles for exploring complex philosophical ideas, making them accessible to a wide audience through vivid narratives and memorable characters.

Secular wisdom. Unlike religious texts, Greek myths do not rely on divine authority to impart their lessons. Instead, they use relatable human experiences and moral dilemmas to encourage critical thinking and self-reflection. This approach allows readers to engage with profound philosophical concepts without the need for faith or adherence to a specific religious doctrine.

2. The Odyssey reveals the core of ancient wisdom

What Odysseus's refusal contains in a nutshell is a definition of the life well lived—from which we begin to glimpse the philosophical dimension of the myth.

Choosing mortality. Odysseus's rejection of Calypso's offer of immortality encapsulates a fundamental Greek philosophical principle: a well-lived mortal life is superior to an eternity devoid of meaning or purpose. This choice emphasizes the importance of:

• Authenticity and self-realization
• Embracing one's true nature and limitations
• Finding fulfillment within the constraints of mortality

Harmony with cosmic order. The myth illustrates the Greek ideal of living in accordance with one's proper place in the universe. Odysseus's decision to return home reflects the belief that true happiness comes from aligning oneself with the natural order of things, rather than seeking to transcend or escape it.

3. Mortality awareness drives human questioning

Unremittingly, we feel the passage of time. This, no doubt, sometimes brings us happiness—the proof of which is that we love life—but also remorselessly takes away from us all that we cherish most.

Existential anxiety. Humans' unique awareness of their mortality sets them apart from both gods and animals. This consciousness of our finite existence drives us to:

• Question the meaning and purpose of life
• Seek ways to make the most of our limited time
• Grapple with the anxiety of loss and separation

Time's double edge. Our perception of time is both a blessing and a curse. It allows us to appreciate life's joys and create meaningful experiences, but also confronts us with the inevitability of loss and change.

4. Greek myths offer secular lessons in wisdom

Mythology delivers messages of astonishing profundity, perspectives that open up to mortals the vista of a good life without recourse to the illusions of a hereafter, affording us a means of confronting human mortality, of facing up to our destiny without dosing ourselves with the consolations that the great monotheistic religions claim to bring to mankind.

Secular spirituality. Greek mythology provides a framework for addressing existential questions without relying on religious doctrines or the promise of an afterlife. Key aspects of this secular wisdom include:

• Accepting the reality of death and human limitations
• Finding meaning and purpose within mortal existence
• Cultivating virtues and ethical behavior for their own sake

Practical philosophy. These myths offer practical guidance for living well, focusing on how to navigate the challenges of mortal life rather than promising rewards in an afterlife. They encourage readers to confront difficult truths and make the most of their limited time.

5. Heroism and glory are insufficient for true salvation

"None of your fine words about death to me, shining Odysseus! I'd rather be a slave on earth, looking after the cows for some dirt-poor tenant farmer who scrapes a living, than rule down here over all the breathless dead!"

Limits of fame. Achilles' lament in the underworld reveals the inadequacy of heroic glory as a means of overcoming death. This powerful scene demonstrates that:

• Posthumous fame does not compensate for the loss of life
• The living experience, even in hardship, is preferable to death
• True value lies in the quality of life, not in how one is remembered

Reassessing priorities. This myth challenges readers to reconsider what truly matters in life, suggesting that genuine human connections and lived experiences are more valuable than the pursuit of fame or historical legacy.

6. Living in harmony with the cosmos is key to wisdom

Philosophy likewise forged an indissoluble link between notions of the "good life," a life of wisdom, and that of a human existence reconciled to the universe, or to what Greeks called the "cosmos." A life lived in harmony with the cosmos—this is true wisdom, the authentic road to salvation, in the sense of saving us from our fears and making us thereby happier and more open to others.

Cosmic alignment. Greek philosophy, rooted in mythology, emphasizes the importance of finding one's proper place within the universal order. This concept involves:

• Understanding the nature of the cosmos and one's role within it
• Aligning one's actions and attitudes with the broader cosmic harmony
• Accepting natural limitations while striving for personal excellence

Inner peace through acceptance. By recognizing and embracing one's place in the cosmic order, individuals can achieve a sense of peace and purpose. This acceptance frees them from the anxiety of fighting against their nature or circumstances, leading to greater happiness and openness to others.

7. Mythology laid the foundation for Greek philosophy

Philosophy likewise forged an indissoluble link between notions of the "good life," a life of wisdom, and that of a human existence reconciled to the universe, or to what Greeks called the "cosmos."

From myth to reason. Greek mythology served as a precursor to formal philosophy, introducing key concepts and questions that would later be explored through rational inquiry. This transition involved:

• Reframing mythological ideas in more abstract, conceptual terms
• Developing systematic methods of inquiry and argumentation
• Preserving the core wisdom of myths while subjecting them to critical analysis

Continuity of thought. Many philosophical ideas can be traced back to their mythological roots, demonstrating the enduring influence of these ancient stories on Western intellectual tradition.

8. Greek myths continue to shape modern language and culture

Let us begin with our broad cultural inheritance of Greek myths.

Linguistic legacy. Greek mythology has profoundly influenced modern language, with numerous words, phrases, and expressions derived from these ancient stories. Examples include:

• "Achilles' heel" (a weakness or vulnerability)
• "Trojan horse" (a deceptive strategy)
• "Pandora's box" (a source of unforeseen troubles)
• "Herculean task" (an extremely difficult challenge)

Cultural pervasiveness. The influence of Greek myths extends beyond language, shaping various aspects of modern culture:

• Literature and art draw inspiration from mythological themes and characters
• Popular culture, including movies and TV shows, frequently adapts Greek myths
• Psychological concepts, such as the "Oedipus complex," reference mythological figures

9. Understanding mythology enriches art appreciation

One of the aims of the present book is to "awaken" the sleeping metaphors deriving from Greek mythology, by retelling the uncanny stories that constitute their point of origin—if only for cultural reasons, so as to understand the countless legions of works of art and literature that line our museums and libraries, drawing their inspiration from these antique roots, and that remain entirely "hermetic" (another recollection of the god Hermes!) to those unacquainted with mythology.

Cultural literacy. Knowledge of Greek mythology provides a key to understanding and appreciating a vast array of artistic works. This familiarity enables viewers and readers to:

• Recognize mythological references and allusions in art and literature
• Understand the deeper meanings and symbolic significance of artistic works
• Appreciate the continuity of cultural themes across centuries

Unlocking hidden meanings. Many artworks and literary pieces become richer and more meaningful when viewed through the lens of mythological knowledge, revealing layers of symbolism and interpretation that might otherwise remain hidden.

10. Greek myths address universal human experiences

Mythology is above all a representation of the world as a universe that is harmonious, just, beautiful, and good—at the outset.

Timeless relevance. Greek myths continue to resonate with modern audiences because they address universal human experiences and emotions. These stories explore:

• Love, jealousy, and family relationships
• The quest for identity and purpose
• Moral dilemmas and ethical choices
• The struggle against fate and limitations

Psychological insight. Many Greek myths offer profound insights into human psychology and behavior, anticipating modern psychological theories and providing a framework for understanding the complexities of the human psyche.

11. Mythology offers a doctrine of salvation without God

Mythology delivers messages of astonishing profundity, perspectives that open up to mortals the vista of a good life without recourse to the illusions of a hereafter, affording us a means of confronting human mortality, of facing up to our destiny without dosing ourselves with the consolations that the great monotheistic religions claim to bring to mankind.

Secular salvation. Greek mythology presents a unique approach to the concept of salvation, distinct from monotheistic religions. Key aspects include:

• Accepting mortality as a fundamental aspect of human existence
• Finding meaning and fulfillment within the constraints of mortal life
• Cultivating wisdom and virtue as paths to a well-lived life

Confronting reality. Rather than offering comfort through promises of an afterlife, Greek myths encourage individuals to face the realities of human existence head-on. This approach emphasizes:

• Developing resilience in the face of life's challenges
• Finding joy and purpose in the present moment
• Cultivating a sense of connection to the broader cosmic order

Last updated: January 24, 2025