A Multitude of All Peoples

1. Christianity has always been a global religion, not just recently.

Christianity is not becoming a global religion; it has always been a global religion.

Challenging a common misconception. Many contemporary Christians perceive global diversity as a recent phenomenon, emerging primarily in the 20th century with the growth of the church in the Global South. This view often presents Christian history as a Western trajectory from its origins to Europe and North America, only now returning to global roots.

Ancient global reach. The reality is that Christianity spread from Jerusalem in every direction from the very beginning.

• Egypt had an organized church by the late second century.
• Ethiopia became predominantly Christian in the fourth century.
• Syriac-speaking merchants brought Christianity along the Silk Road to Persia by the early third century, Central Asia by the mid-fourth, and China by the mid-sixth.
• Missionary activity reached India no later than the late third century.

Diversity from the start. These traditions took on indigenous forms across Africa and Asia at a time when much of Northern and Western Europe still practiced pagan religions. The idea that Christianity is the "white man's religion" is a historical distortion that ignores its deep, ancient roots in non-Western cultures.

2. The perception of Christianity as Western is rooted in the Roman Empire's Christianization.

It is this common misconception that requires further conversation.

From diverse origins to Roman association. While Christianity began in a multicultural Palestinian Jewish context, it became increasingly associated with the Roman world, particularly after Emperor Constantine's conversion in the fourth century. This association was solidified in medieval times, linking the formation of European nations and the concept of "the West" inextricably with a Roman form of Christianity.

Constantine's impact. Constantine's adoption of Christianity was seen as an opportunity to unite his empire under a single religion, contrasting with traditional Roman polytheism.

• He convened the Council of Nicaea (325) to enforce doctrinal unity, like the date of Easter and the divinity of Jesus.
• Eusebius of Caesarea promoted a vision of the Roman Empire as an "eikon of the kingdom of God," intertwining Roman identity (romanitas) with Christian identity (christianitas).
• Constantine's letter to the Persian shah Shapur revealed a condescending Roman Christian attitude and veiled threats, contributing to Persian suspicion of Christians.

Consequences for non-Romans. This association led to Christians outside the Roman Empire being viewed not just as followers of Jesus, but also of the Roman emperor. Nationalized religion in Rome contributed to institutionalized persecution of Christians in Persia, who were seen as having divided loyalties.

3. The Chalcedonian schism created the first major division along geo-cultural lines.

The language of Christ existing in two natures—and especially the theological implications that were projected onto this language—proved scandalous for the majority of Christians in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

Theological controversy and division. The fourth century saw the establishment of Christian doctrine using Hellenistic terminology, which led to significant ecclesiastical schism in the fifth century. The Council of Chalcedon (451) defined Christ as existing in two natures (divine and human) united in one person.

Rejection in the East and South. This definition was unacceptable to the majority of Christians in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and later Ethiopia and Nubia.

• They followed Cyril of Alexandria's emphasis on Christ having "one nature" after the union (Miaphysitism).
• They felt the Chalcedonian formula resembled Nestorianism, which they had previously condemned for dividing Christ's natures.
• The imposition of Chalcedonian patriarchs and policies by Byzantine emperors like Justinian intensified resistance and solidified separate church hierarchies.

Marginalization of ancient traditions. This schism, unlike earlier theological debates, resulted in the lasting separation and marginalization of major non-Western Christian traditions. Condemned as "heretical" by the dominant Roman church, these ancient churches were often ignored, oppressed, and later colonized by Western Christendom.

4. Early African Christianity in Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia developed distinct identities.

Thus Ethiopia’s written history renders untenable the claim that Christianity is a white man’s religion and not part of African culture.

Deep roots in the Nile Valley. Christianity took hold early and deeply in Africa, particularly along the Nile.

• Egypt (Coptic Church) traces its origins to the Apostle Mark in the first century, developing a rich tradition of monasticism (Anthony, Pachomius, Shenoute) and theological scholarship (Clement, Origen).
• Nubia received Christianity from Egypt, possibly as early as the fifth century (Silko inscription), and developed a strong Miaphysite church that successfully resisted Arab Muslim conquest for centuries (baqt treaty).
• Ethiopia (Täwahïdo Church) officially adopted Christianity in the fourth century under King Ezana, developing a unique liturgical style (Degwa) and creating its own written language (Ge'ez) for Bible translation and literature (Garima Gospels, Kebra Negast).

Indigenous expressions and resistance. These churches developed distinct cultural and theological expressions, often in contrast to or in resistance against Roman/Byzantine influence.

• Egyptian Coptic identity was shaped by martyrdom and later asserted distinctiveness from Arab Muslims.
• Nubian Christianity blended Byzantine, Egyptian, and native features, visible in art and architecture.
• Ethiopian Christianity maintained orthodox doctrine despite Arian Roman emperors and later resisted European Catholic influence (Walatta Petros).

Challenging Eurocentric narratives. The vibrant, independent histories of these ancient African churches, including their creation of written languages and unique cultural adaptations, fundamentally challenge the notion that Christianity is inherently a European or white religion.

5. Middle Eastern Christianity in Syria, Lebanon, and Arabia flourished with unique expressions.

Even at the end of Syriac literary production, the ethnoreligious character of Syrian Christians was being reified in prominent ways as this ancient Christian community is principally defined by Syrian identity.

Syriac as a unifying force. The Syriac language served as a key vehicle for Christian identity and mission across the Middle East and Asia.

• Antioch was an early center (Acts 11:26), but Urhoy (Edessa) became the heart of Syriac Christianity, producing figures like Ephrem the Syrian, who developed a unique poetic theology (madrāshe, memre).
• Lebanon's Maronite Church, rooted in Syriac monasticism (Maroun, John Maron), developed a distinct identity, initially Chalcedonian but later embracing monothelitism before aligning with Rome during the Crusades.
• Arabia had Christian communities from early times (Paul in Galatia, Persian missions in the East, Roman missions in the North), maintaining orthodox doctrine despite Arian Roman influence (Queen Mania).

Cultural and theological distinctives. Middle Eastern churches developed unique theological approaches and cultural adaptations.

• Syriac theology, exemplified by Ephrem, used symbols and paradox rather than strict Hellenistic definitions.
• The Maronites navigated complex relationships with Byzantine, Syrian Miaphysite, and later Muslim powers, asserting their identity through theological choices and geographical concentration in Lebanon.
• Arabian Christians, like Theodore Abū Qurrah and Abu Raita, pioneered Christian theology in Arabic (Christian kalam), engaging with Islamic thought while defending Christian doctrine.

Resilience and adaptation. Despite facing persecution from both Roman/Byzantine and later Islamic authorities, these communities demonstrated remarkable resilience, adapting their faith and identity within diverse political and cultural landscapes.

6. Asian Christianity spread along the Silk Road to Persia, India, Central Asia, and China.

As with other regions across Asia in Late Antiquity, Christianity first entered China through the missionary efforts of East Syriac travelers along the Silk Road.

Eastward expansion. From its base in Persia, the Church of the East became a major missionary force across Asia, utilizing the Silk Road trade routes.

• Persia (Church of the East) had Christians from the first century (Pentecost), developing a distinct theology (Narsai, Babai the Great) and ecclesiastical structure independent of Rome (Synod of Isaac).
• India (Thomas Christians) traces its origins to the Apostle Thomas, receiving later waves of Persian Christian migrants and developing unique cultural adaptations like the Nasrani cross.
• Central Asia saw Christianity spread among groups like the Sogdians and White Huns, with significant centers in Merv, Samarkand, and Kashgar, documented in texts from places like the Bulayiq monastery.
• China received Christianity during the Tang Dynasty (635 CE) via Alopen, documented on the Xi'an Stele and Dunhuang manuscripts, which show deep contextualization using Buddhist and Taoist concepts.

Diverse cultural contexts. Christianity adapted to vastly different Asian cultures and religious landscapes.

• Persian Christians navigated life under Zoroastrian and later Islamic rule, developing a robust intellectual tradition (School of Nisibis) and engaging in interfaith dialogue (Timothy of Baghdad).
• Indian Christians blended faith with local customs, including caste dynamics and religious imagery.
• Central Asian Christians, like the Keraites, integrated faith into nomadic cultures, later flourishing under the religious tolerance of the Mongol Empire.
• Chinese Christians translated the gospel into local philosophical terms, creating unique texts like the Jesus Sutras.

A vast, often overlooked history. This extensive history of Asian Christianity, predating European missions by centuries, highlights the truly global nature of the faith from its earliest periods.

7. Non-Western churches developed divergent theological language and practices.

The overall cultural value of biblical literalism in the eastern provinces, as well as the lack of currency experienced by the distinction of physis from hypostasis in the multilingual context of Roman Egypt and Syria, also contributed to the schism.

Beyond Hellenistic norms. While Hellenistic thought influenced early Christian theology, non-Western churches often developed theological language and practices that differed from Greco-Roman norms.

• The Miaphysite churches (Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Ethiopia, Nubia) rejected the Chalcedonian "two natures" formula, not necessarily denying Christ's full humanity and divinity, but finding the terminology divisive and non-biblical.
• The Church of the East developed a distinct Christology using Syriac terms like kyane (natures), qnome (individual instances), and parsopa (person), which was unintelligible to both Chalcedonians and Miaphysites.
• Ephrem the Syrian used poetic symbols (raze) and paradox rather than Greek philosophical definitions to speak of God.

Cultural factors in theological expression. Linguistic and cultural contexts shaped how doctrine was articulated.

• In Ethiopia, the Ge'ez language made the Chalcedonian distinction between nature and person difficult to grasp.
• In the Syriac world, there was a strong emphasis on biblical authority and a distrust of elevating extra-biblical philosophical terms.
• The multilingual context of Egypt and Syria meant Hellenistic philosophical distinctions were not universally understood or valued.

Autonomy and contextualization. These divergent theological expressions were not simply misunderstandings but represented genuine attempts to articulate Christian truth within specific cultural and linguistic frameworks, asserting autonomy from the dominant Roman theological trajectory.

8. The Arab Muslim conquests reshaped the Christian landscape and identities.

The Arab Muslim conquest contributed to the Western captivity of the church in two important ways: (1) the reduction of missional efforts in Africa and Asia, and (2) the impetus for the Western world to reinvent itself as a religious empire to rival the ascendant Islamic power to the East.

A new political reality. The swift expansion of the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates in the seventh century fundamentally altered the political and social context for Christians in Africa and the Middle East.

• The Persian Sasanian Empire fell, and much of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory (Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa) came under Muslim rule.
• While initially experiencing relative tolerance as dhimmis (protected people) with the payment of a tax (jizyah), Christians faced increasing pressure and marginalization over time.
• Public Christian life became more restricted, and in some areas, churches were destroyed or converted into mosques.

Impact on Christian identity. The shift to minority status under Muslim rule fostered new forms of Christian identity and expression.

• Miaphysite churches (Coptic, Syrian Orthodox) often fared better initially than Chalcedonian (Melkite) churches, who were associated with the defeated Byzantine Empire.
• Christians began writing theology in Arabic (Christian kalam), engaging with Islamic thought and defending their faith in a new linguistic and intellectual context.
• Some Christian texts expressed resentment towards Muslim rulers, while others, like the Coptic Apocalypse of Samuel of Kalamun, criticized fellow Christians for adopting Arabic language and customs.

Isolation and decline. The Islamic wall across the Mediterranean and Central Asia reduced contact between Eastern and Western Christianity and hindered missional expansion from the Middle East and North Africa into other parts of the continent.

9. Western Christendom solidified its identity in response to the rise of Islam.

As the Carolingian Empire experienced unprecedented dominance across Europe, writers from this period asserted the primacy of their Christendom more pointedly than their Merovingian predecessors.

A new center of power. With the Eastern Roman Empire weakened by Islamic conquests, a new Christian superpower emerged in Western Europe under the Carolingian dynasty, culminating in Charlemagne's coronation as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 CE.

• This act asserted a claim to Roman heritage and Christian leadership, challenging the authority of the Byzantine Empire.
• The Carolingians undertook a program of correctio, aiming to restore and unify Western Christian society through religious, cultural, and educational reforms.
• Charlemagne enforced Christianity aggressively, notably through harsh conversion laws and massacres in Saxony.

Defining identity against Islam. The rise of Islam provided a significant impetus for Western Europe to define itself as a distinct Christian civitas.

• Western writers like Bede interpreted victories against Muslims (e.g., Poitiers in 732) as divine protection of Europe and Christianity.
• Muslim historians also perceived the Franks/Europeans as a primary Christian rival.
• This adversarial stance contributed to later conflicts like the Crusades and provided a theological justification for colonialism and the slave trade (e.g., papal bull Romanus Pontifex).

Enduring legacy. The self-appointed role of Western Christendom as the guardian of Christian society, solidified during this period in response to Islam, laid the foundation for centuries of Western cultural captivity of the church and the perception of Christianity as a Western religion.

10. Contextualization and indigenous leadership are vital lessons from early global Christianity.

As this historical survey has demonstrated, the perseverance and demise of ancient African, Middle Eastern, and Asian Christianity is significantly related to the degree of ownership and autonomy experienced in church growth.

Two wings of mission. The history of early non-Western Christianity highlights two crucial principles for effective mission: the missiological primacy of contextualized theology and autochthonous (indigenous) leadership.

• Contextualization involves translating the gospel into local language, art, and cultural frameworks, as seen in Syriac poetry, Ethiopian liturgy, Indian crosses, and Chinese Christian texts.
• Indigenous leadership ensures that the church is rooted in the local culture and guided by those who understand its nuances.

Lessons from history. Where these principles were strongly embraced, Christianity often flourished and developed deep roots.

• The Coptic, Ethiopian, Syrian Orthodox, and Armenian churches developed strong indigenous identities and leadership, enabling them to survive centuries of foreign rule and persecution.
• The Church of the East's expansion across Asia was driven by Persian and Sogdian missionaries who adapted the faith to new contexts, although dependence on Syriac language sometimes created cultural barriers.
• The decline of Christianity in North Africa and China was partly linked to a lack of deep rooting in local languages and the reliance on foreign leadership.

Contemporary relevance. The Western cultural captivity of the church remains a major obstacle today. Learning from the successes and failures of ancient non-Western churches underscores the need for global Christianity to embrace cultural diversity, empower indigenous leaders, and allow the gospel to be translated and embodied authentically in every cultural context.

Last updated: May 31, 2025