Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament

1. Ancient Near Eastern Thought: A Shared Cognitive Environment

There is a great distance between borrowing from a particular piece of literature and resonating with the larger culture that has itself been influenced by its literatures.

Common Ground. The ancient Near East, encompassing Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, shared a common cognitive environment. This means that despite their unique cultures and beliefs, they had similar ways of thinking about the world, their place in it, and the divine. This shared environment is evident in their literature, art, and religious practices.

Cultural Resonance. Rather than direct borrowing, many similarities between cultures arose from a shared cultural matrix. Ideas and concepts permeated the region, influencing various cultures in different ways. This is similar to how modern ideas spread through society, influencing people without direct borrowing from a specific source.

Beyond Borrowing. Comparative studies should not be limited to identifying literary borrowing or dependence. Instead, it should focus on understanding the shared cognitive environment that shaped the beliefs and practices of the ancient world. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of both similarities and differences.

2. Deities: Function Over Form, Not Always Benevolent

The theme of myth was not the essence of the deities, but rather . . . the essence of reality.

Functional Ontology. In the ancient Near East, deities were understood primarily through their functions and roles, not their physical forms or inherent essences. A god's existence was defined by what it did, not by what it was. This is why theogony (the origin of the gods) is intertwined with cosmogony (the origin of the cosmos).

Human-like Deities. The gods of the ancient Near East were often portrayed with human-like characteristics, including emotions, desires, and even flaws. They were not always benevolent or just, and their actions were often driven by self-interest or conflict with other deities.

Beyond Superlatives. While hymns and prayers often used superlatives to describe the gods, these should not be taken as a complete picture of their nature. The gods were not omniscient, omnipotent, or omnipresent. They were limited by their roles and jurisdictions within the cosmos.

3. Temples: Cosmic Centers, Not Just Places of Worship

On earth . . . the gods live only in images, in the king as an image of god, in cult images in the temples, and in sacred animals, plants and objects.

Divine Residences. Temples were not primarily places for human worship, but rather residences for the gods. They were considered earthly representations of the heavenly realm, serving as a link or portal between the two. The temple was a place of rest for the deity, a place where order was maintained.

Sacred Space. Temples were built on sacred sites, often associated with the primeval waters or cosmic mountains. The architecture of the temple was designed to reflect the structure of the cosmos, with sacred zones and limited access.

Beyond Worship. Temples were not just places of worship, but also economic, political, and social centers. They were the focal point of community life, and the source of order and stability in the ancient world.

4. Rituals: Maintaining Order, Not Just Appeasing Gods

The cosmic dimension of the divine was not confined to the sheer materiality of cosmic elements such as earth, air, water, and so forth, or to celestial bodies such as the sun and the moon, but rather that it referred to specific complexes of actions, traits, attitudes, and qualities that were interpreted as cosmic phenomena “in action” and in which humankind also participated.

Cosmic Maintenance. Rituals were not simply acts of worship, but rather a means of maintaining order in the cosmos. They were believed to have a direct impact on the balance of the universe, and were essential for ensuring the continued presence and favor of the gods.

Beyond Appeasement. While appeasement was a component of some rituals, the primary goal was to perform the correct actions in the correct way. The focus was on the procedure, not the emotional state of the deity.

Priestly Role. Priests were the specialists who possessed the knowledge and responsibility for performing rituals correctly. They were the mediators between the human and divine realms, ensuring that the gods' needs were met and that order was maintained.

5. Kingship: Divine Sponsorship, Not Divine Status

In pagan religion, gods are born and suckled, grow to maturity, contest for satisfaction of appetites and emotions, battle for prestige and power and mastery, indulge in sex, and are subject to failure, defeat, and death.

Divine Mandate. Kings were seen as divinely appointed rulers, chosen by the gods to maintain order and justice in the human realm. They were not considered gods themselves, but rather representatives of the divine will.

Mediators. Kings were seen as mediators between the divine and human realms, responsible for carrying out the gods' will on earth. They were expected to be wise, just, and powerful, and to ensure the prosperity and security of their people.

Limited Power. Despite their divine sponsorship, kings were not considered to be above the gods. They were still subject to the gods' will and were expected to act in accordance with their commands.

6. Law: Model Justice, Not Prescriptive Codes

In dealing with Assyriological matters, as Delitzsch did in his first two lectures, he combined scholarship with special pleading; in dealing with Old Testament materials, Delitzsch mixed learning with considerable naiveté; in dealing with the New Testament, or, more specifically Jesus, Delitzsch displayed naiveté and perfidy.

Exemplary Verdicts. Ancient Near Eastern legal collections were not prescriptive codes, but rather collections of exemplary verdicts that served as models for judicial wisdom. They were intended to guide judges in their decision-making, not to provide a comprehensive set of laws.

Justice, Not Law. The focus was on achieving justice and equity, not on adhering to a rigid set of rules. The goal was to maintain order and stability in society, not to enforce a specific legal system.

Royal Wisdom. Legal treatises were often sponsored by kings as a means of demonstrating their wisdom and their commitment to justice. They were a way of legitimizing their rule and their authority.

7. Wisdom: Practical Guidance, Not Abstract Philosophy

The new school demanded—on top of literary criticism, or better, preceding it—a comprehensive analysis of history, culture and religion.

Practical Application. Wisdom literature in the ancient Near East was primarily concerned with practical guidance for daily life. It offered advice on how to live wisely, how to succeed in business, and how to maintain good relationships.

Social Order. Wisdom was seen as a means of maintaining social order and harmony. It emphasized the importance of ethical behavior, respect for authority, and the value of tradition.

Beyond Abstraction. Wisdom was not primarily concerned with abstract philosophical concepts, but rather with concrete actions and behaviors. It was a practical guide for living a successful and fulfilling life.

8. Divination: Seeking Guidance, Not Predicting the Future

The first question that should be asked in comparative research is that of the Sitz im Leben and the meaning of the extra-Biblical parallel adduced.

Divine Communication. Divination was a means of seeking guidance from the gods. It was not primarily about predicting the future, but rather about understanding the divine will and making informed decisions.

Interpreting Signs. Divination involved the interpretation of signs and omens, which were believed to be messages from the gods. These signs could be found in the stars, in the entrails of animals, or in dreams.

Action, Not Prediction. The goal of divination was not to know the future with certainty, but to gain a sense of direction and confidence in one's actions. It was a way of navigating the uncertainties of life with divine guidance.

9. Afterlife: Community and Remembrance, Not Eternal Reward

The cosmic dimension of the divine was not confined to the sheer materiality of cosmic elements such as earth, air, water, and so forth, or to celestial bodies such as the sun and the moon, but rather that it referred to specific complexes of actions, traits, attitudes, and qualities that were interpreted as cosmic phenomena “in action” and in which humankind also participated.

Community of the Dead. The afterlife was not seen as a place of individual reward or punishment, but rather as a continuation of the community of the family. The dead were believed to remain connected to the living, and to require their care and remembrance.

Importance of Burial. Proper burial was essential for ensuring that the deceased could find their place in the netherworld. It was also a way of maintaining the connection between the living and the dead.

Beyond Reward. The focus was on maintaining a connection with the living and being remembered, not on achieving a specific reward or punishment. The afterlife was a continuation of life, not a radical departure from it.

10. Israel: Continuity and Discontinuity with the Ancient Near East

The biblical text offers no indication that Israel considered Yahweh as having an origin, and there are no other gods to bring into existence either by procreation or separation.

Shared Cognitive Environment. Israel shared many aspects of the cognitive environment of the ancient Near East, including their understanding of the cosmos, the role of deity, and the importance of order and justice.

Unique Theology. However, Israel also had a unique theology that set them apart from their neighbors. This included their belief in one God, their covenant relationship with Yahweh, and their emphasis on ethical behavior and holiness.

Covenant as a Lens. The covenant served as a lens through which Israel interpreted their history, their laws, and their relationship with God. It was the foundation of their unique identity and their understanding of the world.

Last updated: January 14, 2025