China After Mao

1. Mao's Legacy: A Dictatorship Transitioned, Not Transformed

"‘Reform and Opening Up’ although forty years old, is not fundamentally different from what came before."

Continuity over change. Despite the shift from Mao's radical policies, the core tenets of the Communist Party's control remained intact. The economic reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping were primarily aimed at preserving the Party's political monopoly, not ushering in a democratic transition.

Echoes of Stalinism. The emphasis on five-year plans, state ownership of key industries, and control over land and resources reflected a continuation of the Soviet-inspired economic model. The "economic miracle" was, in many ways, a refinement of the planned economy, not a departure from it.

The illusion of progress. The narrative of a complete break from the Maoist past masked the reality of a system that continued to prioritize the Party's interests above all else. The focus on economic growth, while impressive, came at the expense of political freedom and individual rights.

2. Economic Tightening: A Cycle of Centralization and Decentralization

"If prosperity and bust are the hallmarks of capitalism, what seems to be happening in the People’s Republic is more like this: boom, and a bust indefinitely postponed."

A familiar pattern. The post-Mao era witnessed a recurring cycle of economic liberalization followed by periods of tightening control. Decentralization of economic power led to local initiatives and growth, but also to imbalances, corruption, and inflation.

The "birdcage economy." Chen Yun's concept of the "birdcage economy," where the market ("the bird") operates within the confines of state planning ("the cage"), exemplified this dynamic. The Party sought to harness market forces while maintaining ultimate control.

Consequences of control. Attempts to rein in the economy through austerity measures often resulted in unintended consequences, such as reduced investment in essential sectors and increased social unrest. The lack of genuine market mechanisms and independent institutions hindered effective economic management.

3. Rural Revolution: Farmers' Quiet Defiance of Collectivization

"The people lost the right to protest, but Tiananmen became ever more important as a stage for the new regime to display itself."

Bottom-up change. While the Party debated economic policy in Beijing, a silent revolution was taking place in the countryside. Farmers, driven by necessity and disillusionment with collectivization, began to reclaim control over their land and livelihoods.

Household Responsibility System. The introduction of the Household Responsibility System, which allowed farmers to lease land and retain a portion of their harvest, unleashed a surge in agricultural productivity. This de facto privatization of agriculture transformed the rural economy.

State's limited control. The success of the rural reforms demonstrated the limits of the Party's control over the economy. Despite official pronouncements and policy shifts, the initiative for change often came from below, driven by the ingenuity and resilience of ordinary people.

4. The Illusion of Openness: Controlled Flows and Unequal Competition

"‘Openness’ implies the flow of people, ideas, goods and capital. But in China the state controls all these flows, and they are often unidirectional."

Selective engagement. While China embraced foreign trade and investment, it maintained strict control over the flow of information, ideas, and people. The "open door" policy was carefully managed to serve the Party's interests.

Barriers to entry. Foreign businesses faced numerous obstacles, including bureaucratic hurdles, intellectual property theft, and unequal competition with state-owned enterprises. The playing field was tilted in favor of domestic firms.

Limited foreign presence. Despite its economic integration with the world, China remained relatively closed to foreign residents. The percentage of foreigners living in China was among the lowest in the world, even lower than North Korea.

5. Tiananmen's Shadow: Suppressing Dissent and Reasserting Control

"Criticizing Mao was one thing, criticizing Deng Xiaoping quite another."

The limits of liberalization. The brief period of openness and intellectual ferment that followed Mao's death was abruptly curtailed by the Tiananmen Square massacre. The Party made it clear that economic reform would not be accompanied by political liberalization.

Four Cardinal Principles. Deng Xiaoping's "Four Cardinal Principles" – upholding socialism, the dictatorship of the proletariat, the leadership of the Communist Party, and Marxism–Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought – served as a bulwark against dissent and a justification for repression.

The suppression of dissent. The crackdown on the democracy movement led to the arrest, imprisonment, and exile of countless activists, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens. The Party reasserted its control over all aspects of society, from the media to the arts.

6. Economic Pragmatism vs. Ideological Purity: A Constant Tug-of-War

"In a one-party state, each decision by the leadership has enormous and unintended consequences."

The pendulum swings. The history of post-Mao China is marked by a constant tension between economic pragmatism and ideological purity. Periods of reform and openness were often followed by crackdowns and retrenchment.

The "Two Whatevers." Hua Guofeng's "Two Whatevers" policy – upholding whatever decisions Mao made and following whatever instructions he gave – represented a rigid adherence to the past. Deng Xiaoping's challenge to this orthodoxy paved the way for economic reform.

The struggle for control. The ideological battles between reformers and conservatives within the Party shaped the course of Chinese history. Figures like Chen Yun and Li Peng represented a more cautious, state-centric approach to economic development.

7. The "China Model": Authoritarian Capitalism on the World Stage

"Without political freedom, there is no economic freedom. Politics determines the nature of the economy, not the reverse."

A unique hybrid. China's economic system defied easy categorization. It combined elements of state capitalism, market socialism, and cronyism, creating a unique and often contradictory model.

State control of capital. Unlike in capitalist economies, capital in China remained a political tool, allocated by state-controlled banks to enterprises pursuing political goals. The pursuit of profit was secondary to the Party's agenda.

Absence of rule of law. The lack of an independent judiciary and a free press undermined the development of genuine markets. Without legal protections for property rights and freedom of information, economic activity was subject to arbitrary interference and corruption.

8. The Price of Growth: Environmental Degradation and Social Inequality

"The state accumulates vast wealth, while the people remain frugal; the party cadres enjoy housing, cars, education for their children, and trips abroad, while the people rely on their own savings to pay for everything."

Uneven distribution of wealth. The economic boom in China disproportionately benefited the state and its affiliated elites. Ordinary citizens, particularly those in rural areas, saw their share of the national wealth decline.

Environmental devastation. The relentless pursuit of economic growth came at a high environmental cost. Pollution, resource depletion, and ecological damage became widespread, threatening the health and well-being of millions.

"The country is rich, the people are poor." This phrase captured the essence of the Chinese economic model, where the state accumulated vast wealth while the majority of the population struggled to make ends meet.

9. The End of Reform? Centralization, Control, and a New Era of Repression

"There was no ‘grand plan’, no ‘secret strategy’, only a myriad of contingent events, unforeseen consequences, unexpected reversals, and endless power struggles behind the scenes."

A return to authoritarianism. Under Xi Jinping, China has witnessed a renewed emphasis on ideological control, political repression, and state dominance of the economy. The limited reforms of the past have been rolled back.

The cult of personality. The promotion of Xi Jinping's personal authority and the elevation of his thought to the level of Mao Zedong represent a revival of personality cults. Dissent is increasingly suppressed, and independent voices are silenced.

The surveillance state. China has built a vast surveillance apparatus, utilizing facial recognition technology, artificial intelligence, and ubiquitous monitoring to track and control its citizens. This system of social control is unprecedented in its scale and sophistication.

10. The Unresolved Question of Taiwan: A Lingering Threat to Stability

"No Chinese leader has ever said at any time that they supported the separation of powers."

Unwavering claim. The Communist Party has never relinquished its claim to Taiwan, viewing the island as a renegade province that must eventually be reunified with the mainland, by force if necessary.

Erosion of autonomy. Despite promises of "one country, two systems," Beijing has steadily eroded Hong Kong's autonomy, imposing national security laws and curtailing democratic freedoms. This has raised concerns about the future of Taiwan.

A potential flashpoint. The unresolved status of Taiwan remains a major source of tension in the region and a potential flashpoint for conflict between China and the United States. The future of Taiwan will have profound implications for the global balance of power.

Last updated: April 16, 2025