Democracy in America

1. Equality of Conditions: The Bedrock of American Society

The more I advanced in the study of American society, the more I perceived that the equality of conditions is the fundamental fact from which all others seem to be derived, and the central point at which all my observations constantly terminated.

Fundamental principle. Equality of conditions, not necessarily equality of wealth or status, is the defining characteristic of American society. This principle shapes public opinion, laws, governance, and even daily life, influencing everything from political structures to social interactions. It's the lens through which all other aspects of American life must be viewed.

Historical roots. This equality stems from the early settlers, who were largely middle-class individuals seeking religious freedom and economic opportunity, not the wealthy or powerful. This lack of a pre-existing aristocracy meant that social hierarchies were less rigid, and the emphasis was placed on individual merit and achievement.

• Poverty and misfortune as equalizers
• Land ownership as a barrier to aristocracy
• Parish system and sovereignty of the people

Ongoing revolution. The author observes that this trend towards equality is not unique to America, but is a global phenomenon, a "providential fact" that is "universal" and "durable." This revolution is not just political, but also social, impacting laws, ideas, customs, and manners.

2. The Genesis of Anglo-America: Two Distinct Colonial Paths

All the British colonies had then a great degree of similarity at the epoch of their settlement. All of them, from their first beginning, seemed destined to witness the growth, not of the aristocratic liberty of their mother-country, but of that freedom of the middle and lower orders of which the history of the world had as yet furnished no complete example.

Divergent origins. While sharing a common English heritage, the colonies of the North and South developed along different paths. Virginia, settled by gold-seekers and adventurers, quickly adopted slavery, which profoundly shaped its social structure and values. New England, founded by Puritans seeking religious freedom, emphasized education, community, and a more democratic spirit.

Slavery's impact. The introduction of slavery in the South created a society marked by idleness, ignorance, and a disdain for manual labor. This system, combined with the English character, led to a distinct social and political culture, one that was more hierarchical and less egalitarian than the North.

• Slavery dishonors labor
• Introduces idleness, ignorance, and pride
• Enervates the mind and activity

New England's influence. The principles of New England, rooted in Puritanism, spread throughout the colonies, shaping the political and social landscape of the nation. These principles, which included a strong emphasis on education, self-governance, and religious freedom, became the foundation of American democracy.

• Puritanism as a political and religious doctrine
• Emphasis on education and morality
• Homogeneous society with no lords or common people

3. The Township: America's Cradle of Liberty

Town-meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to science; they bring it within the people’s reach, they teach men how to use and how to enjoy it.

Natural association. The township, or village, is the most natural form of human association, existing in all nations regardless of their political systems. However, its independence is fragile and easily destroyed by centralized power.

Municipal freedom. Municipal freedom is not a creation of human design but a spontaneous growth in semi-barbarous societies. It is the foundation of free nations, teaching citizens how to use and enjoy liberty. Without it, a nation may have free government, but not the spirit of liberty.

• Township as a natural association
• Municipal freedom as a spontaneous growth
• Town-meetings as schools of liberty

New England model. The township system of New England serves as a model for local self-governance. It is characterized by direct democracy, where citizens participate in town meetings, elect their own magistrates, and manage their own affairs. This system fosters a sense of civic responsibility and engagement.

• Selectmen as organs of popular mandate
• Town-meeting as a direct democracy
• Numerous municipal officers with specific duties

4. The Sovereignty of the People: A Living Doctrine

In America the principle of the sovereignty of the people is not either barren or concealed, as it is with some other nations; it is recognized by the customs and proclaimed by the laws; it spreads freely, and arrives without impediment at its most remote consequences.

Fundamental principle. The sovereignty of the people is not a mere theory in America, but a living doctrine that permeates all aspects of society. It is recognized by customs, proclaimed by laws, and allowed to reach its most extreme consequences.

Evolution of the principle. This principle, initially confined to townships and municipalities, gained prominence during the American Revolution. The revolution transformed it into the law of laws, leading to the abolition of aristocratic influences and the extension of the elective franchise.

• Townships as nurseries of sovereignty
• Revolution as a catalyst for change
• Gradual extension of the elective franchise

Practical application. The principle of the sovereignty of the people is applied in various ways, from direct democracy in town meetings to representative government through elected officials. The nation governs itself, with all power centered in its bosom, and authorities are constantly reminded of their popular origin.

5. The Delicate Balance: State vs. Federal Power

The form of the Federal Government of the United States was the last which was adopted; and it is in fact nothing more than a modification or a summary of those republican principles which were current in the whole community before it existed, and independently of its existence.

Dual sovereignty. The American system is characterized by a complex interplay between two distinct levels of government: the states and the federal government. The states retain control over local affairs, while the federal government handles national interests.

Federal government as exception. The federal government is the exception, with its powers carefully enumerated and limited. The states, on the other hand, retain all powers not explicitly delegated to the federal government. This division of power is a key feature of the American system.

• States as sovereign entities
• Federal government with limited powers
• Division of power as a safeguard against tyranny

Federalism's challenges. The division of power between the states and the federal government is a source of ongoing tension and debate. The author notes that the federal government is more centralized than many European monarchies, but it is also subject to the constant scrutiny and influence of the states.

6. The Power of the Judiciary: Guardians of the Constitution

In America the constitution may therefore vary, but as long as it exists it is the origin of all authority, and the sole vehicle of the predominating force.

Unique role of judges. American judges possess a unique power: the right to declare laws unconstitutional. This power, derived from the supremacy of the Constitution, makes the judiciary a powerful political organ.

Judicial review. This power of judicial review is not found in other countries, where the legislature is supreme. In America, the Constitution is the supreme law, and judges are empowered to uphold it, even against the will of the majority.

• Judges as interpreters of the Constitution
• Judicial review as a check on legislative power
• Judicial power as a balance to democracy

Checks and balances. The judiciary acts as a check on the other branches of government, ensuring that they do not overstep their constitutional boundaries. This system of checks and balances is a key feature of the American system, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.

7. The Tyranny of the Majority: A Democratic Paradox

I am not so much alarmed at the excessive liberty which reigns in that country as at the very inadequate securities which exist against tyranny.

Potential for abuse. While democracy is founded on the principle of majority rule, the author warns of the potential for the majority to become tyrannical. The absence of checks and balances can lead to the oppression of minorities and the suppression of dissenting opinions.

Moral authority of the majority. The majority in America wields not only political power but also moral authority. This can lead to a stifling of dissent and a pressure to conform to the prevailing opinions.

• Majority as a source of power and morality
• Dangers of unchecked power
• Suppression of dissenting opinions

Checks on power. The author notes that the American system lacks sufficient safeguards against the tyranny of the majority. The absence of a strong, independent executive and judiciary, combined with the power of public opinion, can lead to a situation where the majority can impose its will without restraint.

8. The American Character: A Blend of Liberty and Religion

It is the result (and this should be constantly present to the mind of two distinct elements), which in other places have been in frequent hostility, but which in America have been admirably incorporated and combined with one another. I allude to the spirit of Religion and the spirit of Liberty.

Unique combination. The American character is shaped by a unique blend of religious fervor and a love of liberty. These two seemingly contradictory forces have been successfully combined in the United States, creating a society that is both deeply religious and fiercely independent.

Religion as a moral compass. Religion provides a moral framework for American society, guiding its laws and customs. It also serves as a check on the excesses of liberty, preventing it from degenerating into license.

• Religion as a source of morality
• Liberty as a means of self-expression
• Religion and liberty as mutually supportive

Liberty as a political force. Liberty, in turn, provides a space for the exercise of religious faith, allowing individuals to worship freely and to pursue their own spiritual paths. This combination of religious and political freedom is a defining characteristic of American society.

9. The Three Races: A Nation Divided

The human beings who are scattered over this space do not form, as in Europe, so many branches of the same stock. Three races, naturally distinct, and, I might almost say, hostile to each other, are discoverable amongst them at the first glance.

Racial divisions. The United States is not a homogenous nation, but a society divided by race. The white Europeans, the black Africans, and the native Indians each occupy a distinct place in the social hierarchy, with little interaction or integration between them.

Negroes and Indians. The author contrasts the fates of the negroes and the Indians. The negroes, subjected to slavery, have lost their cultural identity and are forced to imitate their oppressors. The Indians, fiercely independent, resist assimilation and are gradually pushed towards extinction.

• Negroes as victims of servitude
• Indians as victims of independence
• Both races as victims of oppression

Future conflict. The author predicts that the presence of these three races will be a source of future conflict and instability in the United States. The inability of the races to mix or coexist peacefully poses a serious threat to the nation's future.

10. The Fragility of the Union: A Test of Time

The Union will only last as long as the States which compose it choose to continue members of the confederation.

Voluntary union. The American Union is not a natural entity, but a voluntary association of independent states. Its strength depends on the willingness of the states to remain united, and the author questions whether this willingness will endure.

Forces of disunion. The author identifies several factors that could lead to the dissolution of the Union, including the growing power of the states, the increasing diversity of interests, and the potential for conflict between the North and the South.

• States as centers of power and loyalty
• Lack of a common national identity
• Potential for conflict between North and South

Uncertain future. The author concludes that the future of the American Union is uncertain. While the Union has many advantages, its inherent weaknesses and the growing tensions between its different parts make its long-term survival far from guaranteed.

Last updated: January 22, 2025