Ethics

1. Ethics is a Practical Guide to Human Flourishing

The aim of it is the acquisition and propagation of a certain kind of knowledge (science), but this knowledge and the thinking which brings it about are subsidiary to a practical end.

Not just theory. Aristotle's ethics isn't just a set of abstract ideas; it's a practical guide for living a good life. It's about understanding what's best for humans and how to achieve it, not just about intellectual understanding. This knowledge is meant to be applied, not just contemplated.

• It's about action, not just thought.
• It's about becoming good, not just knowing what good is.
• It's about living well, not just thinking about it.

Political science. Ethics is deeply connected to political science, as the well-being of the individual is intertwined with the well-being of the community. The state, through law, plays a crucial role in shaping character and promoting virtue. The goal is to create a society where individuals can flourish.

• The state is an educational agency.
• Laws are instruments for good character.
• The best life is made possible by the state.

Not exact science. Ethics is not like mathematics; it deals with human behavior, which is complex and variable. We can't expect precise rules, but rather general principles that guide us. Experience and good habits are essential for understanding and applying these principles.

• Moral rules are general, not absolute.
• Experience is the source and test of moral principles.
• Good habits are necessary for understanding moral principles.

2. Happiness is the Ultimate Goal of Human Action

Since then of all things which may be done there is some one End which we desire for its own sake, and with a view to which we desire everything else; and since we do not choose in all instances with a further End in view (for then men would go on without limit, and so the desire would be unsatisfied and fruitless), this plainly must be the Chief Good, i.e. the best thing of all.

The end of all action. All human actions, whether individual or collective, are ultimately aimed at achieving happiness. This is not just a fleeting feeling, but a state of flourishing and well-being. It's the ultimate goal that gives meaning to all other pursuits.

• Happiness is desired for its own sake.
• All other things are desired for the sake of happiness.
• It's the ultimate end of all human activity.

Not mere pleasure. Happiness is not simply about physical pleasures, wealth, or honor. These things are often pursued as means to an end, but they don't constitute the end itself. True happiness is something more profound and lasting.

• Pleasure, wealth, and honor are not the Chief Good.
• They are means to an end, not the end itself.
• True happiness is more than these.

Activity of the soul. Happiness is found in the active exercise of our human capacities, particularly our reason. It's not a passive state, but an active engagement with life. It involves developing our virtues and using them in our daily lives.

• Happiness is an activity, not a state.
• It involves the exercise of reason.
• It requires the development of virtues.

3. Virtue is the Path to Happiness

Human Happiness lies in activity or energising, and that in a way peculiar to man with his given nature and his given circumstances, it is not theoretical, but practical: it is the activity not of reason but still of a being who possesses reason and applies it, and it presupposes in that being the development, and not merely the natural possession, of certain relevant powers and capacities.

Developed powers. Happiness is not something we are born with, but something we achieve through the development of our natural capacities. These developed powers are known as virtues, which are excellences or perfections of our nature.

• Virtues are developed, not innate.
• They are excellences of human nature.
• They are necessary for successful living.

Two kinds of virtues. There are two main types of virtues: intellectual and moral. Intellectual virtues are developed through study and instruction, while moral virtues are developed through discipline and habit. Both are essential for a complete and happy life.

• Intellectual virtues are developed through study.
• Moral virtues are developed through discipline.
• Both are necessary for happiness.

Moral virtues. Moral virtues are the qualities of character that enable us to live well in society. They involve regulating our instincts and feelings according to reason. They are the foundation of a good life and the central focus of ethics.

• Moral virtues regulate instincts and feelings.
• They are essential for living in society.
• They are the central focus of ethics.

4. Moral Virtue is a Mean Between Extremes

To do (or to feel) what is right in a given situation is to do or to feel just the amount required—neither more nor less: to do wrong is to do or to feel too much or too little—to fall short of or over-shoot, "a mean" determined by the situation.

Doctrine of the Mean. Moral virtue is a state that lies between two extremes, one of excess and one of deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess). It's about finding the right balance in our actions and feelings.

• Virtue is a balance between extremes.
• Excess and deficiency are both vices.
• The mean is determined by the situation.

Not a fixed point. The mean is not a fixed point, but rather a relative one that varies depending on the situation and the individual. What is courageous for one person might be reckless for another. It requires practical wisdom to discern the right course of action.

• The mean is relative, not absolute.
• It varies depending on the situation.
• It requires practical wisdom to discern.

Habit and practice. Moral virtue is not something we are born with, but something we develop through habit and practice. By repeatedly choosing the mean in our actions and feelings, we gradually form a virtuous character.

• Virtue is formed through habit.
• It requires repeated right actions.
• It becomes a "second nature."

5. Practical Wisdom Guides Moral Action

The mode in which such knowledge manifests itself is in the power to show that such and such rules of action follow from the very nature of the end or good for man.

Intellectual virtue. Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue that enables us to make sound judgments about what is good and right in particular situations. It's not just about knowing general principles, but about applying them to specific circumstances.

• Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue.
• It involves applying principles to specific situations.
• It's essential for moral action.

Interdependence. Practical wisdom and moral virtue are interdependent. Moral virtue provides the right desires and goals, while practical wisdom provides the knowledge and skill to achieve them. Neither is complete without the other.

• Moral virtue provides the right goals.
• Practical wisdom provides the means to achieve them.
• They are interdependent and necessary for each other.

Not cleverness. Practical wisdom is not the same as cleverness. Cleverness is the ability to achieve any goal, whether good or bad, while practical wisdom is the ability to achieve good goals. True practical wisdom is always guided by a commitment to what is right and noble.

• Practical wisdom is not mere cleverness.
• It's guided by a commitment to what is good.
• It's the "wisdom" of the good man.

6. Responsibility Requires Voluntary Action

Coercion and ignorance of relevant circumstances render acts involuntary and exempt their doer from responsibility, otherwise the act is voluntary and the agent responsible, choice or preference of what is done, and inner consent to the deed, are to be presumed.

Voluntary vs. involuntary. For an action to be considered morally significant, it must be voluntary. Involuntary actions, those done under compulsion or ignorance, do not make us responsible. Responsibility requires choice and inner consent.

• Moral responsibility requires voluntary action.
• Coercion and ignorance make actions involuntary.
• Choice and inner consent are essential.

Deliberation and choice. Voluntary actions are those that we choose after deliberation. Deliberation involves thinking about the means to achieve our goals. It's through our deliberate choices that we shape our character and become responsible for our actions.

• Voluntary actions involve deliberation.
• Deliberation is about means to ends.
• Deliberate choices shape our character.

Responsibility for character. We are responsible not only for our individual actions but also for the kind of character we develop. Our repeated choices and actions form our habits, which in turn shape our character. We are responsible for becoming the kind of person we are.

• We are responsible for our character.
• Habits shape our character.
• We are responsible for our habits.

7. Justice is Essential for a Flourishing Society

Aristotle is here dealing with justice in a restricted sense viz as that special goodness of character which is required of every adult citizen and which can be produced by early discipline or habituation.

Justice as a virtue. Justice is a moral virtue that is essential for a flourishing society. It's about giving each person what is due to them, whether in the distribution of goods or in the correction of wrongs. It's the virtue that regulates our interactions with others.

• Justice is a moral virtue.
• It's about giving each person what is due.
• It's essential for a flourishing society.

Distributive and corrective justice. There are two main types of justice: distributive and corrective. Distributive justice is concerned with the fair allocation of resources and opportunities, while corrective justice is concerned with rectifying wrongs and restoring balance.

• Distributive justice is about fair allocation.
• Corrective justice is about rectifying wrongs.
• Both are essential for a just society.

Justice and law. Justice is closely connected to law, but it's not simply about following the letter of the law. True justice requires a deeper understanding of fairness and equity. It's about applying the law in a way that promotes the common good.

• Justice is connected to law.
• It's not just about following the letter of the law.
• It's about promoting the common good.

8. Friendship is a Necessary Component of a Good Life

The subject-matter of them was a favourite topic of ancient writers, and the treatment is smoother and more orderly than elsewhere in the Ethics . The argument is clear, and may be left without comment to the readers.

Essential for happiness. Friendship is not just a pleasant addition to life; it's a necessary component of a good and happy life. We need friends for support, companionship, and mutual growth. A life without friends is incomplete.

• Friendship is necessary for happiness.
• It provides support and companionship.
• It's essential for human flourishing.

Three kinds of friendship. There are three main types of friendship: those based on utility, those based on pleasure, and those based on goodness. The highest form of friendship is that based on goodness, where friends love each other for their own sake.

• Friendships based on utility, pleasure, and goodness.
• The highest form is based on goodness.
• It involves mutual respect and admiration.

Self-love and friendship. True friendship is rooted in a healthy form of self-love. We must first love ourselves in order to love others. The good man loves himself in the right way, and this love extends to his friends, who are like second selves.

• Friendship is rooted in self-love.
• We must love ourselves to love others.
• Friends are like second selves.

9. Contemplation is the Highest Form of Human Activity

The highest and most satisfying form of life possible to man is "the contemplative life"; it is only in a secondary sense and for those incapable of their life, that the practical or moral ideal is the best.

Beyond practical life. While moral virtue and practical wisdom are essential for a good life, the highest form of human activity is contemplation. This involves the exercise of our intellect in the pursuit of truth and understanding.

• Contemplation is the highest human activity.
• It involves the exercise of intellect.
• It's the pursuit of truth and understanding.

Divine activity. Contemplation is the activity that is most akin to the divine. It's a way for humans to participate in something higher than themselves. It's a life of intellectual activity and absorption in the vision of truth.

• Contemplation is akin to the divine.
• It's a life of intellectual activity.
• It's absorption in the vision of truth.

Not just for the few. While contemplation may seem like an activity for the gifted few, it's something that all humans can participate in to some degree. It's about cultivating our capacity for reason and seeking a deeper understanding of the world around us.

• Contemplation is not just for the gifted few.
• It's about cultivating our capacity for reason.
• It's about seeking a deeper understanding.

Last updated: January 25, 2025